Introduction to

Information System
CSC 311
2 unit

Ikono, Rhoda (PhD)

Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Faculty of Technology
MODULE 1
LECTURE 2
 CONTENT
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Content
• History of information communication and
information system
• Definitions and Basic Concepts of IS
• Information Concept
• System Concept
• System Components
• Information System
• Conclusion
• Summary
• Marked Assignment
• References/Further Readings
 Rational for the study

• Explain the difference between data and

information
• Understand the characteristics of valuable
information system
• To provide you with a basic knowledge of the
different elements of information systems:
 Objectives

• Define the basic concepts of Information System (IS)

• Distinguish data from information and describe the
characteristics used to evaluate the quality of data
• analyse the way in which information flows in and out
of an organization.
• Identify the components of an IS and describe several
system characteristics
• Identify the basic types of models and explain how
they are used
 Learning outcomes
• At the end of this lecture, and having completed the
Essential readings and activities, you should be able to:
• explain the distinction between data and information
• describe how information systems are a combination of technical
and social data
• give a detailed account of different types of information systems
found in organisations and how they interrelate
• discuss how new information systems affect organisations and
how organisations shape information systems
• evaluate the significance of information systems for the economy
and society of your home country and describe significant
national projects to promote ICTs
• provide arguments for and against tight control of the use of
information on individuals
• discuss practical information system issues with a suitable
respondent through our assignments and projects
 HISTORY OF INFORMATION
COMMUNICATION
• Over the last decades, governments all over the world have
tried to take advantage of information and communication
technology (ICT) to improve government operations and
communication with citizens. Adoption of e‐government has
increased in most countries, but at the same time, the rate
of successful adoption and operation varies from country to
country.
• The evolution of ICT in the public sector over the past 25 years.
• It presents general trends by examining interactions and mutual
shaping processes between ICT evolution and several inter‐related
institutional changes including
• government operations,
• public services delivery,
• citizen participation,
• policy and decision making, and
HISTORY: Information System
• JUL 1, 1642: First Calculator
• Blaise Pascal, French mathematician and philosopher invented mechanical calculator so
figures could be added to provide information

• Aug 30, 1890: Tabulator

• Herman Hollerith created a punch card system to tabulate data for the 1890 census.
• Hollerith later used the company to provide data processing equipment evolving into
International Business Machines (IBM)
• May 21, 1952: Punch Cards
• IBM Created a punch card system- allowed mainframes to read and
interpret data from computers by reading hole punchers.
• Jan 1, 1960: Enthusiasm for information systems
• Increased enthusiasm for information systems to enhance
management decision process.
• Mid1960's accounting systems were fairly effective in supplying
descriptive information’s but lacked capacity.
HISTORY: Information System

• Sep 7, 1970: Four year program

• Colleges and Business schools created a full four-year program designed to study information
systems
• Mainframe Computers are being used
• Computers and data are centralized
• Systems are connected to business functions (billing, inventory and payroll)
• First cell phone call made
• Jan 3, 1980: PC
• PC's and LANs were installed.
• Departments set up own computer systems.
• Using Word Processors and Spreadsheets made departments less depend on the IT department.

• Jan 1, 1990
• Wide Area Networks (WANs) become corporate standards
• Management looks for system integration and data integration
• Jan 1, 2000: Wide Area Network
• Wide Area Networks expands to the Internet to include global enterprise and business
partners. Also began to look for data sharing across systems. Iphone, Ipad and Ipod
invented. Main focus was efficiencies and speed in inventory, manufacturing and
distributions
 Introduction
• Organizations offer products to customers to make money.
These products can be goods or services. In most
organizations, huge volumes of data accumulate:
• data of products, data of customers,
• data of employees,
• data of the delivery of products, and
• data of other sources.

• These data therefore play an important role in

contemporary organizations and must be stored, managed,
and processed, which is where information systems come
into play.
• an information system can be considered with the example
of an organization everyone is familiar with: a family doctor
 Introduction…

• A patient who consults a family doctor usually first tells the

doctor about the symptoms. With this information, the doctor
examines the patient and makes a diagnosis. Afterward, the
doctor determines the treatment to heal the patient. For
example, based on the diagnosis, the doctor may write the
patient a prescription for some medication. Finally, the doctor
must document the symptoms, the diagnosis, and the
treatments. Today, most doctors use a software system to record
this information. Before we provide our definition of an
information system, we first explain the term “information,”
which can mean any of the following:
• The communication act of one agent—the term “agent” may refer to any
entity ranging from a person or a software component to an organization
—informing another agent (e.g., by exchanging messages);
• The knowledge or beliefs of agents as a part of their mental state; or
• (Data) objects that represent knowledge or beliefs.
 Information Concept

• Data, information, and knowledge

• Data: Raw facts
• Information: Collection of facts organized in such a
way that they have additional value beyond the
value of the facts themselves
• Process: Set of logically related tasks performed to
achieve a defined outcome
• Knowledge: Awareness and understanding of a set of
information
 Information
Common definition of information is data.
However, data is no true information. Data gets
its meaning and significance if only it is
information. Information is represented with
data, symbols and letters.
Information has the following properties:
• Objective: One of the key properties of information is its
objectiveness. Objective information is a key component of
any modern scientific research.
• Subjective: Set of information which is useful to science
may be abstract or irrelevant for others. Therefore,
information is subjective also.
• Temporary: Information is temporary with every update in
the database.
 Representation of
Information

• Information is represented with the help of

data, numbers, letters or symbols. Information
is perceived in a way it gets represented.
Decimal system and binary system are two
ways of representing information. The binary
circuits of computers are designed to operate
under two states (0,1).
 Data
• Data: data is raw. It simply exists and has no
significance beyond its existence (in and of
itself). It can exist in any form, usable or not.
It does not have meaning of itself. In computer
parlance, a spread sheet generally starts out
by holding data.
• Data is the plural of datum, a single piece of information.
In practice, however, people use data as both the singular
and plural form of the word.
• The term data is often used to distinguish binary
machine-readable information from textual human-
readable information.

• In database management systems, data files

are the files that store the database
information, whereas other files, such as index
files and data dictionaries, store
administrative information, known as
Types of Data

Data Represented by

Alphanumeric Numbers, letters and

data other characters

Image data Graphic images and

pictures

Audio data Sound, noise or tones

Video data Moving images or pictures.

 • Data and information work the
same way.
• Rules and relationships can be
• Defining and set up to organize data into
organizing useful, valuable information.

relationships among • The type of information created

depends on the relationships
data creates defined among existing data.
information • Adding new or different data
means you can redefine
relationships and create new
information.
 Process

• This is a set of logically related tasks

performed to achieve a defined outcome. That
is turning data into information is a process.
The process of defining relationships among
data to create useful information requires
knowledge.
 Knowledge
• This involves both data and the relationships among data elements
or their sets. This organization of data based on relationships is
what enables one to draw generalizations from the data so
organized, and to formulate questions about which one wishes to
acquire more data.
• An awareness and understanding of a set of information and how that
information can be made useful to support a specific task
• The act of selecting or rejecting facts based on their relevancy to particular
tasks is also based on a type of knowledge used in the process of converting
data into information.

• Knowledge base
• The collection of data, rules, procedures, and relationships that must be
followed to achieve value or the proper outcome
 Information

• Information is data that has been given meaning

by way of relational connection. This "meaning"
can be useful, but does not have to be. In
computer parlance, a relational database makes
information from the data stored within it.
• When we compare data with information, the first
obvious difference is that information must be seen in a
context in which it makes sense.
• The second characteristic is that there must be a process
by which data gets transformed into information
 The
transformation
Data process (applying Information
knowledge by
selecting,
organizing and
manipulating data

The process of Transforming Data into Information

Therefore, information
can be said to be
organized data

Alphanume
ric
Represented by Image
Numbers, letters
and other Audio
Represen INFORMATIO
characters
ted by
Video
Represe N
Graphic Represe
images nted by nted by
and Sound, Moving
pictures noise or images
tones or
pictures
 Organization of
Information
• The way in which information is organized directly affect the
way the information is managed and retrieved.
• The simplest way of organizing information is through linear
model. In this form, data is structured one after another, for
example, in magnetic tapes, music tapes, etc.
• In a binary tree model, data is arranged in an inverted tree
format where it assumes two values.
• The hierarchy model is derived from a binary tree model. In this
model, branch can assume multi-value data, for example in the
UNIX operating system this model is used for its file system.
• The hypertext model is another way of organizing information;
World Wide Web is an example of this model.
• Random access model is another way of organizing information.
This model is used for optimum utilization of available computer
storage space. Here data is stored in specified location under
direction of the operating system.
 Networking Information

Information is networked through network topology.

The layout of all the connected devices, and it
provides virtual shape or structure to the network is
known as network topology. The physical structure
may not be representative of network topology. The
basic types of topology are bus, ring, star, tree and
mesh.
• The above topologies are constructed and managed
with help of Hubs, Switches, Bridges, Routers,
Brouters and Gateways.
 Securing Information

• Security of information as well as an

information system is critical. Data back-up is
on the way through which Information can be
made secured. Security management for
network and information system is distinct for
different setup like home, small business,
medium business, large business, school and
government.
 The value and cost of
information
• Data becomes information when it is applied to
some purpose and adds value for the recipient.
• The value of information is directly linked to how it
helps people achieve their organizational goal.
• The value of information must also relate to the
frequency of its provision, and to the level in the
management hierarchy where it is sent and used.
• To be valuable, information must have several
characteristics such as:
Characteristics of Valuable
Information
Characteristic Definitions
s
Accurate How accurate is the information. Accurate information
is error free
Complete Does it contain all the important facts? Complete
information contains all the important facts
Economical How much did it cost to produce the information?
Information should also be relatively economical to
produce.
Flexible Flexible information can be used for a variety of
purposes.
Reliable How dependable is the information? It is related to
how the information was obtained.
Relevant How pertinent is the information to the question or
decision?
Simple How complex or detailed is the information?
Timely How up-to-date is the information?
Verifiable Can the correctness of the information be checked?
Accessible Should be easily accessible by authorized users
 The Value of Information

• Valuable information
• Can help people and their organizations perform
tasks more efficiently and effectively
• Can help managers decide whether to invest in
additional information systems and technology
 Flow of Information

• Without a good flow of information, most

organisations would not find it possible to function
• Information flows in a
• Hierarchy and
• project based organisation

• Dynamics in Technology has made it faster for

information flow
• Information has become more readily available due
to the explosion of electronic information
 Information Mapping

• Mapping the information flow into and out of an

organization is one way to think about how effectively
information is managed.
• Information Mapping, both a formal method (approach)
to writing and a format (visual style) for writing.
• To do this,
• Identification of the source of information is necessary and the
people that require the information
• Determine how effective this information meets decision making
needs
• Determine how it meets the information needs of others within
and outside the organisation.
 The Method

• In traditional business writing, the basic unit of

writing is the paragraph, made of several
sentences. In Information Mapping, there are two
basic units of writing:
• Information block:
• One or more sentences, a diagram, a table, and/or a list
about a limited topic. The content is based on the
purpose or function for the reader (not the writer). This
replaces paragraphs.

• Information map:
• A collection of relevant information blocks about a
limited topic.
 Principles
Principle Description
Chunking
All information should be grouped into small, manageable units.
principle
Relevance The information grouped in a unit should relate to one relevant point
principle based on its purpose or function for the reader.

Labeling Each relevant unit of information should have a label to “advance

principle organize” the content of the unit for the reader.

Information presented should use consistent words, labels, formats,

Consistency organizations, and sequences.
principle Business writing is not creative writing; the same word should always
be used consistently
Integrated Diagrams, tables, pictures, and other visuals should be incorporated as
graphics an integral part of the text, not as an afterthought added after the
principle writing is completed.
Writers should write at a level of detail that makes the information the
Accessible
reader needs readily accessible and put what the reader needs where
detail principle
the reader needs it.
Hierarchy of
chunking and Small, relevant units of information should be organized hierarchically
labeling into larger groups and provide labels for each larger group.
 The Formatting

• Information mapped documents are easy to spot

because of certain characteristics. There are
usually:
• Labels (map titles) at the top of a page (or a title with a
continued tag)
• Labels (block labels) to the left of an information block
• Lines (block lines) in between information blocks
• Several tables and bullet point lists

• The Information Mapping company sells a template

for Microsoft Word that helps writers create and
format Word documents in this style more easily.
• There are specific rules prescribed by the Information
Mapping method. It is good to learn them so you fully
understand the concepts and why they are important. But
once you learn them, adapt them to meet your own needs.

As an example, the method leverages Miller’s Law, which

states the number of objects an average human can hold in
memory is 7, plus or minus 2.
• Thus, the Information Mapping method states a bullet point
list should not have more than nine items, a table no more
than nine rows, a map no more than nine blocks.
 Why Information Mapping?

• Save time, money and frustration

• Information Mapping helps you design clear
and effective Policies, SOPs, manuals, reports
and more.
 System
• System: Since a system is a subjective
concept, there is no unanimously accepted
definition of a system.
• a system is a set of elements or components that
interact to accomplish a goal or set of objectives
• The system does something, i.e. it exhibits a type of
behaviour unique to the system or has a specific
objective or purpose.
• Each component contributes specifically towards the
behaviour of the system and is affected by being in
the system. If a component is removed, it will
change the system behaviour.
 System

• A system may include software, mechanical,

electrical and electronic hardware and be
operated by people.
• System components are dependent on other
system components
• The properties and behaviour of system
components are inextricably inter-mingled
 System
• In a system, network of components work towards
a single objective, if there is lack of co-ordination
among components, it leads to counterproductive
results. A system may have the following features:
• Adaptability: some systems are adaptive to the
exterior environment, while some systems are non-
adaptive to the external environment. For example, anti-
lock braking system in car reacts depending on the road
conditions, where as the music system in the car is
independent of other happening with the car.
• Limitation: every system has pre-defined limits or
boundaries within which it operates. This limits or
boundaries can be defined by law or current state of
technology.
 The basic elements of a
system
• Inputs
• The activity of gathering and capturing data
• Processing mechanisms
• Converting or transforming data into useful
outputs
• Outputs
• Useful information, usually in the form of
documents and/or reports
 Example
System Element
Inputs Processing Outputs Goals
Mechanism
Students, Teaching, Educated Acquisition
Professors, Research, students; of
Administrato Services Meaningful knowledge
rs, research;
Text books, Services to
College Equipment community,
state and
nation

An example of systems and their goals and element

 Example
Patient with glasses is
Environment
a lot better. (feedback)

Eye problem due to so Obtains glasses.

much focus on the Visits an (output)
computer screen. Ophthalmologist who
(input) checks and prescribes
the aid of glasses.
(Process)
 System components and
boundaries
• The components of a system include inputs,
processing mechanism and outputs.
• The system components responsible for these
transformations are called the interfaces.
• Systems also contain boundaries that separate them
from the environment and each other. The boundaries
between the three terms are not always clear.
• The part of the outside world with which the system
interacts is called the system’s environment
 Systems Classifications
Simple Complex
Has few components, and the Has many elements that are highly
relationships or interaction between related and interconnected
elements is uncomplicated and
straightforward
Open Closed
Interacts with the environment No interaction with the environment

Stable Dynamic
Undergoes very little change over Undergoes rapid and constant
time change over time

Adaptive Non adaptive

Is able to change in response to Not able to change in response to
change in the environment change in the environment

Permanent Temporary
Exists for a relatively long period of Exists for only a relatively short
time period of time
 System Performance

• System performance is measured by its effectiveness

and efficiency
• Efficiency is a measure of what is produced divided by what
is consumed.

• Effectiveness is a measure of the extent to which a system

achieves its goal. It can be computed by dividing the goals
actually achieved by the total of the stated goal.

• Effectiveness, like efficiency is a relative term used to

compare systems.
 System Performance
Standard
• System Performance Standard is a specific objective of the system.
• It can be computed by dividing the goals actually achieved by the total of
stated goal.

• Once standards are established system performance is measured

and compared with the standard.
• Variances from the standard are determinants of system
performance.
• A system variable is a quality or item that can be controlled by the
decision maker.
• A system parameter is a value or quantity that cannot be
controlled.
 System Variables and
Parameters
• System variable
• A quantity or item that can be controlled by
the decision maker
• E.g. the price a company charges for a product
• System parameter
• A value or quantity that cannot be controlled
by the decision maker
• E.g., cost of a raw material
 System Modelling

• The real world is complex and dynamic.

Therefore when testing for different
relationships and their effects, models of
systems are used which are simplified instead
of real life systems.
• Hence a model can be said to be an
abstraction or an approximation that is used to
represent reality.
 Types of System Model

• There are for basic types of models: narrative,

physical, schematic and mathematical.
• Narrative model provides a verbal description of reality
• A physical model is a tangible representation of reality
often computed, designed or constructed.
• A schematic model is a graphic representation of reality
such as a graph, chart.
• A mathematical model is an arithmetic representation
Four Basic Types of System
Model

Narrative Physical

Design of Full Adder Circuit

Recall from the truth table
for full adder circuit design
sum Cin  ( A  B)
Carry  AB  Cin ( A  B)

Schematic Mathematical
 Information System

• What is Information System?

• Information systems are sets of interrelated elements that
collect (input), manipulate and Store (process), and disseminate
(output) data and information.
• Set of interrelated components that
• Collect/retrieve, process, store, and distribute information to
• Support decision making, coordination, control

• Help managers and workers

• Analyse problems
• Visualize complex subjects
• Create new products
 Information System

• An information system, therefore, can be

defined as set of coordinated network of
components which act together towards
producing, distributing and or processing
information. An important factor of computer
based information system is precision, which
may not apply to other types of systems.
 Schematic model of an
information system

• The components of an IS
• Feedback is critical to the
successful operation of a
system
• The component that helps
organizations achieve their
goals, such as increasing
profits or improving
customer service
 Why Information System

• IS play a fundamental and ever expanding role in all business

organizations. Hence, Information system literacy and computer
literacy are prerequisites for numerous job opportunities.
• Information System Literacy
• Knowledge of how data and information are used by individuals, groups and
organizations.
• Computer Literacy
• Knowledge of information technology and the way they function, it stresses
equipment and devices (hardware), programs and instructions (software),
databases and telecommunications

• Information System is divided into three dimensions which are

people, organization and technology
• Organizations • Role of managers
• Perceive business challenges
• Integral Part – Vice Versa
• Set organizational strategy
• Coordinate work through
• Allocate human and financial
structured hierarchy and resources
business processes • Creative work, new products,
• Business processes → Logically services
related tasks and behaviours for
accomplishing work • Technology
• Fulfilling an order, Developing a
new product • IT Infrastructure →
• May be informal or include Foundation or platform that
formal rules information systems built on
• Culture embedded in • Computer hardware
information systems
• What is Organizational Culture ?
• Computer software
• Data management
• People technology
• Requires skilled people → • Networking and
Build, Maintain and Use telecommunications
technology
• Adequate Training
• Employee attitudes affect • Internet and Web, extranets,
ability to use systems intranets
productively • Voice, video communications
 Recap
• In this module we have been able to
• Learn what data, information, knowledge, process and the components or elements of
information
• Also study about Transforming data into information and its measurement,
• critically considered the factors that affect the quality and use of data and information
• Understood the concept of system and system modelling.

• Additional reading
• Book
• Information Systems Essentials, Stephen Haag and Maeve Cummings. Published by
McGraw-Hill Irwin
• Website
 Evaluation questions
1. Analyse the way in which information flows in and out of an
organization.
2. How are data, information, process and knowledge related?
3. Distinguish data from information and describe the
characteristics used to evaluate the quality of data
4. Identify the components of a system
5. How does a knowledge worker differ from other types of workers
6. Identify four basic types of models and explain how they are
used.
7. Define the basic concepts of Information System (IS)
• Discuss why it is important to study and understand information systems.
Distinguish data from information and describe the characteristics used to
evaluate the value of data.
• Name the components of an information system and describe several
system characteristics.
• List the components of a computer-based information system. Identify the
basic types of business information systems and discuss who uses them,
how they are used, and what kinds of benefits they deliver.
• Identify the major steps of the systems development process and state the
goal of each.
• Describe some of the threats to security and privacy that information
systems and the Inter net can pose. Discuss the expanding role and
benefits of in formation systems in business and industry.