CALCULUS OF

8 SEVERAL
VARIABLES

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

8.1 Functions of Several Variables

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Functions of Two Variables

3
Functions of Two Variables

The variables x and y are called independent variables,

and the variable z, which is dependent on the values of
x and y, is referred to as a dependent variable.

4
Functions of Two Variables
As in the case of a real-valued function of one real variable,
the number z = f (x, y) is called the value of f at the point
(x, y).

And, unless specified, the domain of the function f will be

taken to be the largest possible set for which the rule
defining f is meaningful.

5
Example 1
Let f be the function defined by
f (x, y) = x + xy + y2 + 2
Compute f (0, 0), f (1, 2), and f (2, 1).
Solution:
We have
f (0, 0) = 0 + (0)(0) + 02 + 2
=2
f (1, 2) = 1 + (1)(2) + 22 + 2
=9
f (2, 1) = 2 + (2)(1) + 12 + 2
=7 6
Functions of Two Variables
The domain of a function of two variables f (x, y) is a set of
ordered pairs of real numbers and may therefore be viewed
as a subset of the xy-plane.

7
Graphs of Functions of
Two Variables

8
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
To graph a function of two variables, we need a
three-dimensional coordinate system.

This is readily constructed by adding a third axis to the

plane Cartesian coordinate system in such a way that the
three resulting axes are mutually perpendicular and
intersect at O.

9
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
Observe that, by construction, the zeros of the three
number scales coincide at the origin of the
three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (Figure 3).

The three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate

system
Figure 3
10
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
A point in three-dimensional space can now be represented
uniquely in this coordinate system by an ordered triple of
numbers (x, y, z), and, conversely, every ordered triple of
real numbers (x, y, z) represents a point in
three-dimensional space (Figure 4a).

A point in three-dimensional space

Figure 4(a)
11
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
For example, the points A(2, 3, 4), B(1, –2, –2), C(2, 4, 0),
and D(0, 0, 4) are shown in Figure 4b.

Some sample points in three dimensional space

Figure 4(b) 12
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
Now, if f (x, y) is a function of two variables x and y,
the domain of f is a subset of the xy-plane.

If we denote f (x, y) by z,
then the totality of all points
(x, y, z), that is, (x, y, f (x, y)),
makes up the graph of the
function f and is, except for
certain degenerate cases,
a surface in three-dimensional
space (Figure 5).

The graph of a function in three-dimensional

space Figure 5 13
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
In interpreting the graph of a function f (x, y), one often
thinks of the value z = f (x, y) of the function at the
point (x, y) as the “height” of the point (x, y, z) on the graph
of f.

If f (x, y) > 0, then the point (x, y, z) is f (x, y) units above the
xy-plane; if f (x, y) < 0, then the point (x, y, z) is | f (x, y) |
units below the xy-plane.

In general, it is quite difficult to draw the graph of a function

of two variables.

14
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
But techniques have been developed that enable us to
generate such graphs with a minimum of effort, using a
computer.

15
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
Figure 6 shows the computer-generated graphs of some
functions of two variables.

(a) f (x, y) = x3 – 3y2x (b) f (x, y) =

(d) f (x, y) = ln(x2 + 2y2 + 1)

(c) f (x, y) =

Four computer-generated graphs of functions of two variables

Figure 6 16
Level Curves

17
Level Curves
We can visualize the graph of a function of two variables by
using level curves.

To define the level curve of a

function of two variables,
let z = f (x, y) and consider the
trace of f in the plane z = k
(k, a constant), as shown in
Figure 7a.

The level curve C with equation f (x, y) = k

is the projection of the trace of f in the plane
z = k onto the xy-plane.
Figure 7(a)

18
Level Curves
If we project this trace onto the xy-plane, we obtain a curve
C with equation f (x, y) = k called a level curve of f
(Figure 7b).

The level curve C

Figure 7(b)
19
Level Curves

Notice that the level curve with equation f (x, y) = k is the

set of all points in the domain of f corresponding to the
points on the surface z = f (x, y) having the same height or
depth k.

20
Level Curves
By drawing the level curves corresponding to several
admissible values of k, we obtain a contour map.

The map enables us to visualize the surface represented

by the graph of z = f (x, y): We simply lift or depress the
level curve to see the “cross sections” of the surface.

21
Level Curves
Figure 8a shows a hill, and Figure 8b shows a contour map
associated with that hill.

A hill A contour map of the hill

(a) (b)

Figure 8
22
Example 5
Sketch a contour map for the function f (x, y) = x2 + y2.
Solution:
The level curves are the graphs of the equation x2 + y2 = k
for nonnegative numbers k. Taking k = 0, 1, 4, 9, and 16,
for example, we obtain
k = 0: x2 + y2 = 0
k = 1: x2 + y2 = 1
k = 4: x2 + y2 = 4 = 22
k = 9: x2 + y2 = 9 = 32
k = 16: x2 + y2 = 16 = 42

23
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

The five level curves are concentric circles with center at

the origin and radius given by r = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4,
respectively (Figure 9a).

Contour map for f (x, y) = x2 + y2

Figure 9(a)
24
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

A sketch of the graph of f (x, y) = x2 + y2 is included for your

reference in Figure 9b.

The graph of f (x, y) = x2 + y2

Figure 9(b)
25
Level Curves
Level curves of functions of two variables are found in
many practical applications.

For example, if f (x, y) denotes the temperature at a location

within the continental United States with longitude x and
latitude y at a certain point in time, then the temperature at
the point (x, y) is given by the “height” of the surface,
represented by z = f (x, y).

26
Level Curves
In this situation, the level curve f (x, y) = k is a curve
superimposed on a map of the United States, connecting
points having the same temperature at a given time
(Figure 11). These level curves are called isotherms.

Isotherms: curves connecting points that have the same temperature

Figure 11
27
Level Curves
Similarly, if f (x, y) gives the barometric pressure at the
location (x, y), then the level curves of the function f are
called isobars, lines connecting points having the same
barometric pressure at a given time.

28
Level Curves
As a final example, suppose P (x, y, z) is a function of three
variables x, y, and z that gives the profit realized when
x, y, and z units of three products, A, B, and C,
respectively, are produced and sold.
Then, the equation P (x, y, z) = k, where k is a constant,
represents a surface in three-dimensional space called a
level surface of P.
In this situation, the level surface represented by
P (x, y, z) = k represents the product mix that results in a
profit of exactly k dollars. Such a level surface is called an
isoprofit surface.

29