BASES OF ELECTROTECHNICS I.

Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology

Specialization: IETTI
Academic year: 2022-2023
 Content of this Subchapter:
1. Nodal Analysis
2. Mesh Analysis

!!! With this two techniques, any linear circuit can be analyzed by obtaining a
set of simultaneous equations that are then solved to obtain the required
values of current or voltage.
 Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis, Node-Voltage Analysis, or the Branch Current Method

- Nodal analysis provide a general procedure for

analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.
- Choosing node voltages instead of element
voltages as circuit variables is convenient and
reduces the number of equations one must solve
simultaneously.

- Nodal analysis is possible when all the circuit elements' branch constitutive relations
have a conductance representation. Nodal analysis produces a compact set of
equations for the network, which can be solved by hand for “small circuits”, or can be
quickly solved using linear algebra by computer.

- Because of the compact system of equations, many circuit simulation programs

(e.g. SPICE Module from ORCAD software) use nodal analysis as a basis.
 3.1 Nodal Analysis

Steps to compute currents using Node Analysis:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages V1, V2, . . . , V(N-1) to the
remaining (N-1) nodes.

 Take as reference node the node with most branches

connecting to it.
 If a voltage source is connected between the
reference node and a non-reference node, we simply
set the voltage at the non-reference node equal to the
voltage source.
 3.1 Nodal Analysis

2. Write the system of equations specific to the Node Analysis.


G11V1  G12V2    G1( N  1)V( N  1)   I k   G j E j
 knode1 jnode1

 G21V1  G22V2    G2( N  1)V( N  1)   I k   G j E j
 knode 2 jnode 2



 G( N  1)1V1  G( N  1) 2V2    G( N  1)( N  1)V( N  1)   I k  GjEj
 knode( N  1) jnode( N  1)

Gaa - the self-conductance of node a

Gab - the mutual conductance between node a and node b

GjEj
- sum of the currents due to current sources connected to node k
 Ik
- sum of the currents due to voltage sources connected to node k

(sign + for currents that enters node; sign – for currents that leaves node)
 3.1 Nodal Analysis

3. Compute the above system of equations in order to compute de Node

Voltages.

4. Compute the currents by applying Omh’s Law for each branch of the
circuit.

Proof of theorem at whiteboard 

 Mesh Analysis
Loop Analysis, Mesh Current Method or Maxwell´s Circulating Currents Method

- Is a method that is used to solve planar circuits for

the currents (and indirectly the voltages) at any
place in the electrical circuit.
- Using mesh currents instead of directly applying
KCL and KVL can greatly reduce the amount of
calculation required.
This is because there are fewer mesh currents than there are physical branch currents.

- Mesh Analysis is a very handy tool to compute current within electronic circuits. From
knowing the current within each mesh (section), we can solve for voltage and power
(watts) at each component.
Ex: Engineers and designers use this information to select correct parts that won’t emit the magic
white smoke when power is applied.
Magic smoke is a humorous name for the caustic smoke produced by burning out electronic circuits or components (usually by
overheating, overdamping, or incorrect wiring configurations), which is held to contain the essence of the component's function.
The smoke typically smells of burning plastic and other chemicals, and sometimes contains specks of sticky black ash. The color
of the smoke depends on which component is overheating, but it is commonly white or grey. Simple overheating eventually
results in component failure, but does not release smoke. Real smoke is almost always the result of incorrect wiring or a
manufacturing failure in the component.
 3.2 Mesh Analysis

 Mesh Analysis is not as general as Nodal Analysis because is it only applicable to a

circuit that is planar

Planar circuit = circuit that can be drawn on a plane surface with no wires crossing each
other; otherwise is nonplanar circuit.

- A circuit may have crossing branches and still

be planar if it can be redraw such that it has no
crossing branches.

Example of a nonplanar circuit

Mesh = loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
 3.2 Mesh Analysis

Steps to compute currents using Mesh Analysis:

- The direction of the mesh current is arbitrary (clockwise or counterclockwise)

and does not affect the validity of the solution.

 As a general rule of thumb, only label inside loops in a clockwise

direction with circulating currents as the aim is to cover all the
elements of the circuit at least once.
 If the assumed direction of a mesh current is wrong, the answer
for that current will have a negative value.
 3.2 Mesh Analysis

KEEP IN MIND:

Before you chose the mesh currents check in which of those 3 possible cases your
circuit is fit:
CASE 1: Circuit with no current sources

CASE 2: When a current source exists only in one mesh

CASE 3: When a current source exists between two meshes

Take into account in choosing mesh currents the rule of thumbs for each case.

In this case we must reconsider the meshes

(CASE 3)
 3.2 Mesh Analysis

STEP_2: Write the system of equations specific to the Mesh Analysis.


 R11 J1  R12 J 2    R1N J N 

 Ek   RjI j
kmesh1 jmesh1

 R21 J1  R22 J 2    R2 N J N 
  Ek   RjI j
kmesh2 jmesh2



 R N 1 J1  R N 2 J 2    R NN J N   Ek   RjI j
 kmeshN jnodeN

RNN - self-resistance (the total resistance) of the Nth loop

Rab - the mutual resistance between loop a and loop b

(with sign + if the mesh currents through the common resistance have the same
direction, with sign – otherwise)

 R j I j - sum of the sources contained by the mesh

 Ek - sum of the voltages due to voltage sources contained by the mesh
 3.2 Mesh Analysis

STEP_3: Compute the above system of equations in order to compute de

Mesh Currents.

STEP_4: Compute the currents through branches based on Mesh (loop) Currents.

Proof of theorem at whiteboard 

SUMMARY
 Content of this Subchapter:
1. Superposition Theorem
2. Source Transformation
3. Thevenin’s Theorem
4. Norton’s Theorem
5. Milman’s Theorem
6. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

For
For the
the following
following analysis
analysis methods:
methods:
Superposition
Superposition Theorem
Theorem
Thevenin’s
Thevenin’s Theorem
Theorem
Norton’s
Norton’s Theorem
Theorem
PLEASE
PLEASE CHECK
CHECK THE
THE COURSE
COURSE FROM
FROM SEMESTER
SEMESTER 1:
1:
Passive Electronic Components and Circuits
(PECC)
 Superposition Theorem
Superposition Theorem is one of those strokes of genius that takes
a complex subject and simplifies it in a way that makes perfect sense.

Superposition theorem states that for a linear system the response

(voltage or current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having
more than one independent source equals the algebraic sum of the
responses caused by each independent source acting alone, where all the
other independent sources are replaced by their internal impedances.

- The theorem is applicable to linear networks (time varying or time

invariant) consisting of independent sources, linear dependent sources,
linear passive elements (resistors, inductors, capacitors) and
linear transformers.
- Superposition works for voltage and current but not power. In other words,
the sum of the powers of each source with the other sources turned off is
not the real consumed power. To calculate power we first use superposition
to find both current and voltage of each linear element and then calculate
the sum of the multiplied voltages and currents.
 4.1 Superposition Theorem

Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:

1. Turn off (set to zero) all independent sources except one by:
- Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby
eliminating difference of potential i.e. U=0; internal impedance of ideal voltage
source is zero (short circuit)).
- Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby
eliminating current i.e. I=0; internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite
(open circuit)).
- Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit
variables.

2. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using any techniques

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each of the other independent source.

4. The total current through any portion of the circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the
currents produced by each independent source.
 4.1 Superposition Theorem

Access the below link to watch a video who explains with a numerical
example Superposition Theorem:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UwiaDe01s60

20/27
 Source Transformation for Independent Sources
- When is applicable, source transformation is a powerful tool that allows circuit
manipulations to ease circuit analysis.

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source Us

in series with a resistors R by a current source is in parallel with a
resistor R, or vice versa.

KEEP IN MIND:

A source transformation does not affect the remaining

part of the circuit.
 4.2 Source transformation

or

When dealing with source transformation, we should keep the

following points in mind:
-The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive
terminal of the voltage source.
-Source transformation is not possible when R=0, which is the case
with an ideal voltage source (for a practical, nonideal voltage source,
R≠0).
-An ideal current source with R=∞ cannot be replaced by a finite
voltage source.
 Thevenin’s Theorem
- Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and
other electronic circuits where one particular resistor in the circuit (called
the “load” resistor) is subject to change, and re-calculation of the circuit is
necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine voltage
across it and current through it.

Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit,

no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage
source and series resistance connected to a load.
 4.3 Thevenin’s Theorem

Steps to Apply Thevenin’s Theorem:

1. Find the Thevenin source voltage by removing the load resistor from the original circuit
and calculating voltage across the open connection points where the load resistor used to
be.
If terminals a-b are made open-
circuited, no current flows, so that the
open circuit voltage across the
terminals a-b must be equal with the
voltage source UTH .

2. Find the Thevenin resistance by removing all power sources in the original circuit (voltage
sources shorted and current sources open) and calculating total resistance between the open
connection points.

With the load disconnected and terminals a-

b open-circuited, we turn-off all
independent sources.
RTH – is the input resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned
off.
 4.3 Thevenin’s Theorem

3. Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit, with the Thevenin voltage source in series with the
Thevenin resistance. The load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of the
equivalent circuit

See in the figure that the Thevenin

equivalent is a simple voltage
divider.

2. Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following the rules for series circuits.
 4.3 Thevenin’s Theorem

Access the below link to watch a video who explains with a numerical
example Thevenin’s Theorem:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zqfi8SjmaBo
 Norton’s Theorem
- In 1936, about 43 years after Thevenin publish his theorem, E.L. Norton, an American
engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories, proposed a similar theorem.

Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear

circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single
current source and parallel resistance connected to a load.
 4.4 Norton’s Theorem

Steps to Apply Norton’s Theorem

1. Find the Norton source current by removing the load resistor from the original circuit and
calculating current through a short (wire) jumping across the open connection points
where the load resistor used to be.
As with Thevenin’s Theorem, everything in the original circuit except the load
resistance has been reduced to an equivalent circuit that is simpler to analyze. Also
similar to Thevenin’s Theorem are the steps used in Norton’s Theorem to calculate
the Norton source current (INorton) and Norton resistance (RNorton).

2. Find the Norton resistance by removing all power sources in the original circuit (voltage
sources shorted and current sources open) and calculating total resistance between the
open connection points.
 4.4 Norton’s Theorem

3. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit, with the Norton current source in parallel with the
Norton resistance. The load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of the
equivalent circuit.

4. Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following the rules for parallel circuits.
 4.4 Norton’s Theorem

 The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are related by a source

transformation which is often called Norton-Thevenin transformation.

 Since VTH, IN and RTH are related according above equation, to determine the Thevenin
or Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
 4.4 Norton’s Theorem

Access the below link to watch a video who explains with a numerical
example Norton’s Theorem:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bu4HR8b_QKI
 Millman’s Theorem
- A theorem which helps in simplifying electrical networks with a bunch of parallel branches.
- Can be used to find the potential difference between two points of a network which contains only
parallel branches.

Millman’s Theorem states that – when a number of voltage sources (E1,

E2, E3…En) are in parallel having internal resistance (R1, R2, R3...Rn)
respectively, the arrangement can replace by a single equivalent voltage
source V in series with an equivalent series resistance R.
 4.5 Millman’s Theorem

Access the below link to watch a video who explains with a numerical
example Millman’s Theorem:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8M1E3rn26Eg
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
- The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an
aid to system design.
- The theorem results in maximum power transfer, and not maximum efficiency. If the
resistance of the load is made larger than the resistance of the source, then efficiency is
higher, since a higher percentage of the source power is transferred to the load, but the
magnitude of the load power is lower since the total circuit resistance goes up.

The maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load resistance

when that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of
the network supplying the power

- This is essentially what is aimed for in radio transmitter design, where the antenna or transmission
line “impedance” is matched to final power amplifier “impedance” for maximum radio frequency
power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current, is very similar to resistance,
and must be equal between source and load for the greatest amount of power to be transferred to
the load. A load impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load impedance that is
too low will not only result in low power output, but possibly overheating of the amplifier due to the
power dissipated in its internal (Thevenin or Norton) impedance.
 4.6 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PCoyrvNnGU0
 4.5 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not:

KEEP IN MIND:
- Maximum power transfer does not coincide with maximum efficiency.
Application of The Maximum Power Transfer theorem to AC power distribution
will not result in maximum or even high efficiency.

-The goal of high efficiency is more important for AC power distribution, which
dictates a relatively low generator impedance compared to load impedance.

- Similar to AC power distribution, high fidelity audio amplifiers are designed

for a relatively low output impedance and a relatively high speaker load
impedance. As a ratio, “output impedance” : “load impedance” is known
as damping factor, typically in the range of 100 to 1000.

- Maximum power transfer does not coincide with the goal of lowest noise. For
example, the low-level radio frequency amplifier between the antenna and a
radio receiver is often designed for lowest possible noise. This often requires
a mismatch of the amplifier input impedance to the antenna as compared
with that dictated by the maximum power transfer theorem.
 For more Examples and Practice problems
using Superposition Theorem, Source Transformation,
Thevenin’s Theorem, Norton’s Theorem, Millman’s Theorem and Maximum Power
Transfer Theorem
see SEMINAR 2
SUMMARY
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

Fig. 1
 2

Fig. 2
 References

[1] Charlews K. Alexander, Matthew N.O.Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric

Circuits (Fifth Edition), published by McGraw-Hill, 2016
[2] Radu V. Ciupa, Vasile Topa, The Theory of Electric Circuits, published
by Casa Cartii de Stiinta, 1998
[3] Dan. D Micu, Laura Darabant, Denisa Stet et al., Teoria circuitelor
electrice. Probleme, published by UTPress, 2016