MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES

Fundamentals of Metal Casting and Casting Design

Course code: ME-742
Instructor

Shahroze Umar

Institute of 1
Space Technology Department of Mechanical Engineering
Contents of this lecture:
• Overview of Casting Technology.
• Casting Processes.
• Sand-Casting Molds.
• Heating and Pouring.
• Engineering Analysis of Pouring.
• Solidification and Cooling.
• Solidification Time.
• Shrinkages.
• Directional Solidification.
• Riser Design.
• Casting Quality.
• Metals for Casting.
• Product Design Considerations.
• Sand Casting and other Casting Processes.
• Permanent mold casting processes. 2
Overview of Casting Technology
Solidification Processes
Such manufacturing processes in which starting work material is either
a liquid or is in a highly plastic condition, and a part is created through
solidification of the material, are called solidification processes.

Casting and Molding dominate this category of shaping processes.

Solidification processes can be classified according to engineering

material processed:

• Metals.
• Ceramics, specifically glasses.
• Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs).

3
Casting of Ingots

Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting

of shapes. The term ingot is usually associated with the
primary metals industries; it describes a large casting that
is simple in shape and intended for subsequent reshaping
by processes such as rolling or forging.
4
Overview of Casting Technology
Classification of solidification processes

5
Overview of Casting Technology
Casting of Metals

• Process in which the molten metal flows by gravity or

other force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape
of the mold cavity.
• A 6,000 years old shaping process.
• The term casting also applies to the part made in the
process.
• It includes the casting of ingots and shapes both.
• Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal.
2. Pour it into a mold.
3. Let it cool down and solidify.

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Overview of Casting Technology
Capabilities and Advantages of Casting

• Can be performed on any metal which can be heated

to liquid state.

• Can create complex part geometries.

• Can create both external and internal shapes.

• Some casting processes are net shape; others are

near net shape.

• Can produce very large parts.

• Some casting methods are suited to mass production.

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Overview of Casting Technology
Disadvantages of Casting

• Different disadvantages for different casting processes

are:

• Limitations on mechanical properties.

• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for

some processes; e.g., sand casting.

• Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten

metals.

• Environmental problems.
8
Overview of Casting Technology
Casting Technology

• Casting is usually performed in a foundry.

Foundry = Factory equipped for making molds,

melting and handling molten metal, performing the
casting process, and cleaning and finishing the final
casting.

• Workers who perform casting are called foundry men.

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Overview of Casting Technology
The Mold in Casting

• Mold contains cavity whose geometry determines part

shape:

• Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly

enlarged to allow for shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling.

• Molds are made of a variety of materials, including

sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal.

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Overview of Casting Technology
Major types of Mold

Two forms of mold are:

(a) Open mold

(b) Closed mold for more complex mold geometry with

gating system leading into the cavity.

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Overview of Casting Technology
Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold Casting – use an expendable mold

which must be destroyed to remove casting:

• Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials,

plus binders.
• Like in sand casting process.

2. Permanent mold Casting – use a permanent mold

which can be used to produce many castings:

• Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic

refractory material)
• Like the Die casting process.
12
Overview of Casting Technology
Comparison of both Casting Processes

• More intricate geometries are possible with

expendable mold processes.

• Part shapes in permanent mold processes are limited

by the need to open the mold.

• Permanent mold processes are more economic in

high production operations.

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Overview of Casting Technology
Parts Made by Casting

• Big parts

• Engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles,

wood burning stoves, machine frames, railway
wheels, pipes, church bells, big statues, pump
housings.

• Small parts

• Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying pans.

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Sand Casting Processes
Parts Made by Casting

A most important casting process in which an

expendable mold of sand is used that is formed with
the help of pattern. The pattern may be of wood, metal
and plastic etc.

Steps involve:

1.Pattern making.
2.Mold making.
3.Heating the metal.
4.Pouring metal into the mold.
5.Let the metal freeze and solidify.
6.Cleaning and finishing the part. 15
 Sand Casting Processes
Step: 01 - Pattern and Mold Making

Pattern Mold Making

Parts of a Mold

16
Sand Casting Processes
Terminology for Sand Casting Mold
• Mold consists of two halves:

• Cope = upper half of mold.

• Drag = bottom half.

• Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask.

• The two halves separate at the parting line.

17
Sand Casting Processes
Terminology for Sand Casting Mold

Making a mold cavity

• Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a

pattern, which has the shape of the part.

• When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity

of the packed sand has desired shape of cast part.

• The pattern is usually oversized to allow for

shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling.

• Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to

maintain its shape. 18
Sand Casting Processes
Terminology for Sand Casting Mold

Use of a core in mold cavity

• The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of

the cast part.

• In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces,

determined by a core, placed inside the mold cavity
to define the interior geometry of part.

• In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand.

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Sand Casting Processes
Terminology for Sand Casting Mold

Gating system

• Channel through which molten metal flows into

cavity from outside of mold is called gating system.

• Consists of a downsprue, through which metal

enters a runner leading to the main cavity.

• At the top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often used

to minimize splash and turbulence as the metal
flows into downsprue.

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Sand Casting Processes
Terminology for Sand Casting Mold

Vent holes

• Small holes to remove the trapped gasses out of mold.

Riser

• Reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to

compensate for shrinkage of the part during
solidification.
• The riser must be designed to freeze after the main
casting in order to satisfy its function.

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Sand Casting Processes
Terminology for Sand Casting Mold

22
Sand Casting Processes
Terminology for Sand Casting Mold

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Sand Casting Processes
Step: 02 - Heating the Metal

• Furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten

temperature sufficient for casting.
• The heat required is the sum of:
• Heat to raise temperature to melting point
• Heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
• Heat to raise molten metal to desired temperature
for pouring

24
Sand Casting Processes
Step: 02 - Heating the Metal

Limitations of above equation due to:

 Specific Heat and thermal properties may vary with
temperature
 Mostly alloys are casted, and alloys melt over a range of
temperature
 Significant heat losses to environment 25
Sand Casting Processes
Step: 02 - Heating the Metal

Example:

26
Sand Casting Processes
Step: 03 – Pouring the Molten Metal

• For this step to be successful, metal must flow into all regions of
the mold, most importantly the main cavity, before solidifying.

• Factors that determine success:

• Pouring temperature.
(Superheat)

• Pouring rate.
(To avoid freezing and Turbulences)

• Turbulence.
(Oxidation of metals, mold erosion)

27
Sand Casting Processes
Step: 03 - Pouring the Molten Metal

1. v: velocity of liquid metal at base of sprue in

cm/sec; g: 981cm/; h: height of sprue in cm
2. v1: velocity at section of area A1; v2: velocity at
section of area A2
3. V: volume of mold cavity

28
height = 0

29
Sand Casting Processes
Step: 03 - Pouring the Molten Metal

If sprue area at its entrance is 5 , compute metal

velocity at sprue entrance.
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Sand Casting Processes
Why is Sprue X-section kept tapered ?

In order to keep volume flow rate (Q=VA) constant. In case, x-section is

fixed, increased fluid velocity due to gravity will increase flow rate. This can
cause air entrapment into liquid metal.

31
Sand Casting Processes
Fluidity Check for Pouring
• The measure of capability of metal to flow into and fill the
mold before freezing.

• Relationship of Viscosity to Fluidity – inversely proportional

• Spiral Mold Test: Longer Cast Spiral means higher Fluidity

• Factors:

• Pouring temperature relative to Tm.

• Metal composition (Freezing Mechanism, Hf).
• Viscosity of Liquid Metal.
• Heat transfer to environment.
32
Sand Casting Processes
Step: 04 - Solidification of Metals

Transformation of molten metal back into solid state where

phase change occurs.

• Solidification differs depending on whether the metal is:

• A pure element.
or
• An alloy.

33
Solidification and Cooling
Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its
freezing point (same as melting point).

34
Solidification and Cooling
Solidification of Pure Metals
• Hf is released into surrounding Mold during solidification.

• Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal

is formed at the interface immediately after pouring.

• Skin thickness increases to form a shell around the molten

metal as solidification progresses.

• Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into mold, as

well as on thermal properties of the metal.

35
Solidification and Cooling
Solidification of Pure Metals & Grain Formation and Growth
Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal,
showing randomly oriented grains of small size near the mold
wall, and large columnar grains oriented toward the center of
the casting.

This Tree like structure inside (away from

Mold walls) is called Dendritic Growth of
Grain. Dendrite growth is found in Pure
Metals as well as in solidification of Alloys.

36
Solidification and Cooling
Solidification of Alloys
Most alloys freeze over a temperature range.

Phase diagram for a copper‑nickel alloy system and cooling curve for a
50%Ni‑50%Cu composition. 37
Solidification and Cooling
Solidification of Alloys
Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing
segregation of alloying components in center of casting.

Again the Fine Grains near Mold Walls,

then Dendrite Formation away from Mold
Walls. Mushy Zone, a Mixture of Liquid
and Solid

38
Solidification and Cooling
Solidification Time
• Total solidification time TTS = time required for casting to
solidify after pouring.
• TTS depends on size and shape of casting by relationship
known as Chvorinov's Rule.
n
V 
TTS Cm  
 A
where TTS = total solidification time; V = volume of the casting;
A = surface area of casting; n = exponent with typical value =
2; and Cm is mold constant.

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Solidification and Cooling
Example

40
Solidification and Cooling
Example - Solution

41
Solidification and Cooling
Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule
• Mold constant Cm depends on:

• Mold material.

• Thermal properties of casting metal.

• Pouring temperature relative to melting point.

Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be based on

experimental data from previous operations carried out using
same mold material, metal, and pouring temperature, even
though the shape of the part may be quite different.
42
Solidification and Cooling
What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us
• Casting with a higher volume‑to‑surface area ratio cools
and solidifies more slowly than one with a lower ratio.

• To feed molten metal to the main cavity, TTS for riser

must be greater than TTS for main casting.

• Since mold constants of riser and casting will be equal,

design the riser to have a larger volume‑to‑area ratio so
that the main casting solidifies first.

• This minimizes the effects of shrinkage.

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Metal Shrinkage during Casting
Shrinkage during Solidification and Cooling

1. Liquid Cooling.
2. Solidification.
3. Solid Cooling.

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Metal Shrinkage during Casting
Shrinkage during Solidification and Cooling

1. Starting level of molten metal immediately after pouring.

2. Reduction in level caused by liquid contraction during
cooling.

(1) (2) 45
Metal Shrinkage during Casting
Shrinkage during Solidification and Cooling

3. Reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity (pipe)

caused by solidification.
4. Further reduction in volume due to thermal contraction during
cooling of solid metal.

(3) (4) 46
Metal Shrinkage during Casting
Solidification Shrinkage

• Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a

higher density than the liquid phase.

• Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit

weight of metal.

• Exception: Cast Iron with high C content.

• Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes

expansion that counteracts volumetric decrease
associated with phase change.
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Metal Shrinkage during Casting
Shrinkage Allowance

• Patternmakers manage the solidification shrinkage and

thermal contraction by making the mold cavity oversized.

• Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final

casting size is called pattern shrinkage allowance.

• Shrinkage is determined by solid metal’s coefficient of

thermal expansion and reverse to determine the
contraction.

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Metal Shrinkage during Casting
Shrinkage Allowance

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Metal Shrinkage during Casting

• To minimize the effects of shrinkage, it is desirable to cast

the regions that are distant from the liquid metal supply to
freeze first and for solidification to progress from the
regions near the riser(s).

• This way, the molten metal is continually available from

risers to prevent shrinkage voids.

• The term directional solidification describes this aspect

of freezing and methods by which it is controlled.

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Directional Solidification
Achieving Direction Solidification

• Directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's Rule

to design the casting, its orientation in the mold, and the
riser system that feeds it.

• Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios

away from riser, so freezing occurs first in these
regions, and the liquid metal supply for the rest of the
casting remains open.

• Chills ‑ internal or external heat sinks that cause rapid

freezing in certain regions of the casting.
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Sand Casting Processes
Chills
• For thick sections, small metal parts, with same material as
that of casting, are put inside the cavity. The metal
solidifies around these pieces as it is poured into cavity.

• For thin long sections, external chills are used. Vent holes
are made in the cavity walls or metal pieces are put in
cavity wall.

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Riser Design
• Riser is waste metal that is separated from the casting and
re-melted to make more castings.

• To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is desirable for

the volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum.

• Freezing of metal in passage (Riser to Cavity) is avoided

by making them shorter.

• Since the shape of the

riser is normally designed
to maximize the V/A ratio,
this allows riser volume to
be reduced to the
minimum possible value. 53
Riser Design
Example

54
Riser Design
Example - Solution

55
Riser Design
Example - Solution

56
Riser Design

The volume to surface area (V/A) ratio is increased while

Volume of Riser is reduced in order to reduce the waste
material.

Types of Risers

• Side and Top Riser.

• Open and Blind Riser.

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The Sand For Casting
The quality of the sand that is used also greatly affects the quality of the
casting and is usually described by the following five measures:

1. Strength - Ability of the sand to maintain its shape.

2. Permeability - Ability to allow venting of trapped gases through the

sand.

3. Thermal stability - Ability to resist damage, such as cracking, from

the heat of the molten metal.

4. Collapsibility - Ability of the sand to collapse, or more accurately

compress, during solidification of the casting.

5. Reusability - Ability of the sand to be reused for future sand molds.

58
Other Casting Processes

Following are some other types of expendable mold castings:

1. Shell Molding.

2. Vacuum Molding Casting.

3. Expanded Polystyrene Processes casting.

4. Investment Casting.

5. Plaster Mold Casting.

6. Ceramic Mold Casting.

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Other Casting Processes

Shell molding casting

• It is a casting process in which the mold is a thin shell made of sand held
together by a thermosetting resin binder - Stronger and smoother than
traditional sand molds, enabling intricate details and tighter tolerances..
• It gives better surface finish than conventional sand casting and better
dimensional accuracy.
• Can produce net shapes.
• Sufficient collapsibility.
• It is expensive especially for small quantity of jobs.
• It can be mechanized for mass production.
• Parts usually produced by this process include gears, valve bodies, bushings
and camshafts.

60
Other Casting Processes
Shell molding casting
Steps involved in Shell Molding Casting

61
Other Casting Processes
Vacuum molding casting
• It is also called the V-process.

• It uses a sand mold held together by vacuum pressure.

• Vacuum in this process refers to the making of mold.

• Recovery of the sand is a major advantage.

• Since no water is used so no moisture related problems.

• This process is a slow process.

• Difficult to automate this process.

62
Other Casting Processes
Steps involved in Vacuum Molding Casting

63
Other Casting Processes

Expanded Polystyrene Processes

• It uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern that vaporizes
when the molten metal is poured into the mold.
• Also called loss-foam, loss-pattern, evaporative-foam or full-mold process.
• It normally includes the complete pouring and gating system also with the
pattern.
• It may also include internal core.
• It can be for both small jobs and for mass production.
• Sand with binding materials is used.
• It is also possible to use dry sand to facilitate the process sand recovery.
• Spraying refractory compound.

64
Other Casting Processes

Steps involved in Expanded Polystyrene Processes

• Protecting the EPS pattern from the
molten metal's heat.
• Forming a mold cavity with the desired
shape for the casting.
• Allowing the decomposition gases from
the EPS to escape, ensuring a smooth
metal surface.

65
Other Casting Processes

Investment Casting
• A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make the mold,
after which the wax is melted away prior to pouring the molten metal.
• It is a precision casting process because it can make casting of high accuracy
and intricate details.
• The process is also known as lost-wax process.
• It gives good surface finish, and the wax can be reused.
• It’s a slow and expensive process.
• Parts made by investment casting are small.

66
Other Casting Processes
Steps involved in Investment Casting

67
Other Casting Processes

Plaster Molding Casting

• Like sand casting Plaster of Paris (Gypsum-CaSO4-2H20) used instead of sand.
• Wood patterns not used because of the amount of water in Plaster of Paris.
• Curing of plastic is a major disadvantage because of the curing time and the high-water
content. (Plaster of Paris (POP) sets (hardens) due to a chemical reaction involving water.)
• Another problem is permeability which can be increased by evacuating air from mold
before pouring, aerating the plaster water mixture before pouring or by using a special
mixture of 50% sand with plaster in a superheated steam oven and drying.
• The last process is called the Antioch process.
• The Antioch process incorporates steam treatment to create a unique granular structure
in the plaster mold, allowing gases to easily escape during metal casting, resulting in a
higher quality final product.

68
Other Casting Processes
Ceramic Casting
• In this casting ceramic materials are used instead of Plaster of Paris to make the
mold for casting.
• The main advantage is that higher casting temperatures can be achieved than
for Plaster of Paris.
• Other advantages include good tolerances and better surface finish.

Refractory Material: This is the main component, forming the bulk of

the mold. It can withstand high temperatures without melting or
decomposing. Common refractory materials used in ceramic casting
molds include:
• Zircon: A zirconium silicate (ZrSiO4) known for its excellent strength
and resistance to high temperatures.
• Mullite: A mineral consisting of aluminum silicate (3Al2O3·2SiO2). It
offers good thermal shock resistance.
• Alumina (Aluminum Oxide): (Al2O3) Known for its high melting point
and chemical stability. 69
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

• It uses a metal mold constructed of two sections that are designed for easy,

precise opening and closing.

• Used for mass production.

• Provide accurate dimensions and good surface finish.

• Used normally for low temperature metals.

• Cores can be used ,even of metals, but their shape must allow for removal from

the casting.

• If sand cores are used the casting is often called semi permanent mold casting.

70
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

71
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Die Casting
• It’s a permanent mold casting process in which the molten metal is injected into a

mold cavity under high pressure.

• Die casting operations are carried out in special die casting machines.

• There are two main types of die casting machines:

1. Hot chamber

2. Cold Chamber

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Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Hot Chamber Die Casting

• In Hot Chamber machines the metal is melted in a container attached to the

machine and a piston is used to inject the liquid metal under high pressure into

the die.

• Low injection pressure required.

• High production rates.

• Applications limited to metals with low melting point.

73
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Hot Chamber Die Casting

74
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Cold Chamber Die Casting

• Molten metal is poured into the unheated chamber form an external melting

container and a piston is used to inject the metal under high pressure into the die

cavity.

• High pressures required.

• Low production rates.

• Favorable for metals with high melting points.

75
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Cold Chamber Die Casting

76
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

True Centrifugal Casting

• In true centrifugal casting molten metal is poured into the rotating mold to

produce a tubular part.

• Orientation of the axis of mold rotation can be either horizontal or vertical.

• The castings have high density.

• Shrinkage is also not a major problem.

• Impurities tend to be on the inner walls and can be removed via machining.

77
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

True Centrifugal Casting

78
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Semi Centrifugal Casting

• Used to produce casting rather than tubular parts.

• Density is greater in the outside section compared to the inner sections.

• Usually used for parts in which the center is machined away.

• Wheels and pulleys are usually made by this processes.

• Expandable molds are commonly found in this type of casting.

79
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Semi Centrifugal Casting

80
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Centrifuge Casting
• In centrifuge casting the mold is designed with part cavities located away from

the axis of rotation so that the molten metal poured into the mold is distributed to

these cavities by centrifugal force.

• It is used for smaller parts.

• Radially symmetry of the parts is not required.

81
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Centrifuge Casting

82
QUIZ 2 (TIME LIMIT: 10 mins)

• ?
[Q Marks-10]

COUNTDOWN TIMER
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
83
Casting Quality
• General defects:
• Misrun.
• Cold shut.
• Cold shot.
• Shrinkage cavity.
• Hot tearing.
• Micro porosity.

• Sand casting defects:

• Sand blow.
• Pin holes.
• Mold shift.
• Core shift.
• Sand wash.
• Penetration.
• Scabs.
• Mold crack. 84
Casting Quality
General defects:
• Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity.

Reasons:
a.Fluidity of molten metal is
insufficient.
b.Pouring temperature is too low.
c. Pouring is done too slowly.
d.Cross section of mold cavity is too
thin.
e.Mold design is not in accordance
with Chvorinov’s rule: V/A at the
section closer to the gating system
should be higher than that far from
85
gating system.
Casting Quality
General defects:
• Cold shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to
premature (early) freezing.

Reasons:
Same as for misrun.

86
Casting Quality
General defects:
• Cold shot
Metal splashes during pouring and solid globules form and become
entrapped in casting.

Reasons:
Gating system should be improved to
avoid splashing.

87
Casting Quality
General defects:
• Shrinkage cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification
shrinkage.

Reasons:
Proper riser design can solve this
issue.

88
Casting Quality
General defects:
• Hot tearing
Hot tearing/cracking in casting occurs when the molten metal is not
allowed to contract by an underlying mold during cooling/
solidification.
Reasons:
The collapsibility (ability to give way
and allow molten metal to compensate
shrink during solidification) of mold
should be improved.

89
Casting Quality
General defects:
• Micro porosity
Small voids distributed throughout the casting caused by solidification
shrinkage of the final molten metal
Usually associated with alloys.

90
Casting Quality
Sand casting defects:
• Sand blow
Balloon‑shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during
pouring.

Reasons:
Low permeability of mold, poor
venting, high moisture content in sand
are major reasons.

91
Casting Quality
Sand casting defects:
• Pin holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of
casting.

Reasons:
Caused by release of gas during
pouring of molten metal.
To avoid, improve permeability &
venting in mold.

92
Casting Quality
Sand casting defects:
• Mold shift
A step-in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative
displacement of cope and drag.

Reasons:
It is caused by buoyancy force of
molten metal.
Cope and drag must be aligned
accurately and fastened.
Use match plate patterns.

93
Casting Quality
Sand casting defects:
• Core shift
Similar to core mold but it is core that is displaced, and the
displacement is usually vertical.

Reasons:
It is caused by buoyancy force of
molten metal.
Core must be fastened with chaplet.

94
Casting Quality
Sand casting defects:
• Sand wash
An irregularity in the casting surface caused by erosion of sand mold
during pouring.

Reasons:
Turbulence in metal flow during
pouring should be controlled.
Also, a very high pouring temperature
can cause erosion of the mold.

95
Casting Quality
Sand casting defects:
• Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate sand mold or
core, causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains
and metal.
Reasons:
Harder packing of sand helps to
alleviate this problem.
Reduce pouring temp if possible
Use better sand binders.

96
Casting Quality
Sand casting defects:
• Scabs
Scabs are rough areas on the surface of casting due to un-necessary
deposit of sand and metal.

Reasons:
It is caused by portions of the mold
surface flaking off during solidification
and becoming embedded in the
casting surface.
Improve mold strength by reducing
grain size and changing binders.

97
Casting Quality
Sand casting defects:
• Mold crack
Occurs when the strength of mold is not sufficient to withstand high
temperatures.

Reasons:
Improve mold strength by reducing
grain size and changing binders.

98
Metals for casting

Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather than pure

metals.

Casting alloys can be classified as:

1. Ferrous casting alloys:

Example: cast iron and cast steel.

2. Non-ferrous casting alloys:

Example: aluminum, magnesium, copper etc.

99
 Product Design Considerations
• Geometric simplicity - Avoiding unnecessary complexities simplifies mold making,
reduces the need for cores.

• Corners - because they are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing
and cracks in the casting

• Section thicknesses - Thicker sections create hot spots in the casting, because greater
volume requires more time for solidification and cooling. These are likely locations of
shrinkage cavities.

• Draft - The required draft need only be about 1º for sand casting and 2º to 3º for
permanent-mold processes.

• Use of cores – As shown in the figure next.

• Dimensional tolerances – Table next

• Surface finish - Typical surface roughness achieved in sand casting is around 6 µm

while plaster-mold and investment casting produce much better roughness values: 0.75
µm

• Machining allowances - Typical machining allowances for sand castings range

between 1.5 mm and 3 mm (0.06 in and 0.12 in). 100
101
Types of Sand For Casting
• Green sand mold – Green sand molds use a mixture of sand,
water, and a clay or binder. Typical composition of the mixture is
90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay or binder. Greensand molds are
the least expensive and most widely used.

• Skin - dried mold - A skin-dried mold begins like a greensand

mold, but additional bonding materials are added, and the cavity
surface is dried by a torch or heating lamp to increase mold
strength. Doing so also improves the dimensional accuracy and
surface finish.

• Dry sand mold - In a dry sand mold, sometimes called a cold box
mold, the sand is mixed only with an organic binder. The mold is
strengthened by baking it in an oven. The resulting mold has high
dimensional accuracy but is expensive and results in a lower
production rate.

• No - bake mold - The sand in a no-bake mold is mixed with a liquid103

resin and hardens at room temperature.
ME-9A
QUIZ 1 (TIME LIMIT: 10 mins)
• Write down the equation for total heat
required to achieve the pouring
temperature and explain its limitations.
[Q Marks-10]

COUNTDOWN TIMER
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
104