Sampling Methods

• Researchers often use sample survey

methodology to obtain information about a
larger population by selecting and
measuring a sample from that population.

• Since population is too large, we rely on

the information collected from the sample.
• Cost minimization
• Inferences about the population are
based on the information from the
sample drawn from that population.
• However, due to the variability in the
characteristics of the population, scientific
sample designs should be applied to
select a representative sample.

• If not, there is a high risk of distorting the

view of the population.
• A sample is a collection of individuals
selected from a larger population.

• For example, we may have a single

sample composed of 50 individuals,
representing a population of 1000 people.
• Sampling enables us to estimate the
characteristic of a population by directly
observing a portion of the population.

• Researchers are not interested in the

sample itself, but in what can be learned
from the sample—and how this information
can be applied to the entire population.
Sample Information

Population
• Therefore, it is essential that a sample
should be correctly defined and
organized.

• If the wrong questions are posed to the

wrong people, reliable information will not
be received and lead to a wrong
conclusion when applied to the entire
population.
Steps needed to select a sample and ensure
that this sample will fulfill its goals.

1. Establish the study's objectives

– The first step in planning a useful and efficient
survey is to specify the objectives with as much
detail as possible.
– Clarifying the aims of the survey is critical to its
ultimate success.
– Without objectives, the survey is unlikely to
generate valuable results.
– The initial users and uses of the data should be
identified at this stage.
2. Define the target population
– The target population is the total population
for which the information is required.
– Specifically, the target population is defined
by the following characteristics:
• Nature of data required
• Geographic location
• Reference period
• Other characteristics, such as socio-demographic
characteristics
3. Decide on the data to be collected
– The data requirements of the survey must be
established.

– To ensure that the requirements are operationally

sound, the necessary data terms and definitions
also need to be determined.
4. Set the level of precision
– There is a level of uncertainty associated with
estimates coming from a sample.
– Researchers can estimate the sampling error
associated with a particular sampling plan, and try to
minimize it.
– Sample-to-sample variation causes sampling error

↑ Sample size ≡ ↑ Precision ≡ ↑ Cost

– Acceptable precision is important

 Precision and accuracy

Low Accuracy high accuracy high accuracy

High Precision low precision high precision

13
5. Decide on the methods on
measurement
– Choose measuring instrument and method of
approach to the population
– Data about a person’s state of health may be
obtained from statements that he/she makes or
from a medical examination
– The survey may employ a self-administered
questionnaire, an interviewing
6. Preparing Frame
– List of all members of the population from
which the sample will be taken
– The elements must not overlap
 The sample design
• Sample design: how the sample will be
collected.
• Estimation techniques: how the results
from the sample will be extended to the
whole population.
• Measures of precision: how the
sampling error will be measured.
 Other Considerations
• Sample size determination
• Questionnaire development
• Pretest
• Organization of the field work
• Data collection
• Summary and analysis of the data
– Edit the completed questionnaires
– Decide on computation procedures
 Sampling theory in public
health
• A health survey (sampling) is a
planned study to investigate the health
characteristics of a population
 A health survey is used to:
• Measure the total amount of illness in the
population;
• Measure the amount of illness caused by a
specified disease;
• Examine the utilization of existing health care
facilities and demand for new ones;
• Measure the distribution of a particular
characteristic, e.g.. breast-feeding practice in
the population;
• Examine the role and relationship of one or
more factors in the aetiology of a disease.
 Sampling
• The process of selecting a portion of
the population to represent the entire
population.
• A main concern in sampling:
– Ensure that the sample represents the
population, and
– The findings can be generalized.
 Advantages of sampling:
• Feasibility: Sampling may be the only
feasible method of collecting information.
• Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands
on resource such as finance, personnel, and
material.
• Greater accuracy: Sampling may lead to
better accuracy of collecting data
• Sampling error: Precise allowance can be
made for sampling error
• Greater speed: Data can be collected and
summarized more quickly
Disadvantages of sampling:
• There is always a sampling error.
• Sampling may create a feeling of
discrimination within the population.
 Errors in sampling
1) Sampling error: Errors introduced due
to errors in the selection of a sample.
– They cannot be avoided or totally eliminated.
2) Non-sampling error:
- Observational error
- Respondent error
- Lack of preciseness of definition
- Errors in editing and tabulation of data
• While selecting a SAMPLE, there are
basic questions:
– What is the group of people (STUDY
POPULATION) from which we want to draw
a sample?
– How many people do we need in our
sample?
– How will these people be selected?
 population in the study
• Reference population (or target population): the
population of interest to whom the researchers would like
to make generalizations.
• Source population (sampling population): is a subset of
target population which is often the same as target
population but sometimes can be limited.
• It is the population to which inclusion and exclusion
criteria were applied
• Study population: the population from whom samples will
be selected
• Sampling frame: list of items, objects, individuals or
households with the target population
•Sampling unit: the unit of selection
•It might be households, kebeles, districts
•Primary, secondary and soon
• Study unit: the units on which information will
be collected: persons, housing units, etc.
Researchers are interested to know about factors
associated with ART use among HIV/AIDS patients
attending certain hospitals in a given Region
Target population or source populatio
= All ART
patients in the Region

Study population = All

ART patients in selected
hospitals in the Region that satisfy
Inclusion criteria

Sample
Actually involved
General Diagram
 Sampling Methods
Two broad divisions:

A. Probability sampling methods

B. Non-probability sampling methods

 A. Probability sampling
• Involves random selection of a sample
• Each study unit or individual has a non-zero and known
probability of selection
• Eg : if n number of observations, there is 1/n
probability to be selected
• Mathematical theory is available to assess the
sampling error
• Probability sampling is:
– more complex,
– more time-consuming and
– usually more costly than non-probability
sampling.
• However, because study samples are
randomly selected and their probability
of inclusion can be calculated,
– reliable estimates can be produced and
– inferences can be made about the population.
• The method chosen depends on a number of
factors, such as
– the available sampling frame,
– how spread out the population is,
– how costly it is to survey members of the
population
– the inferences required from the sample
Most common probability
sampling methods
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Multi-stage sampling
6. Sampling with probability proportional to
size
1. Simple random sampling
• The required number of individuals are
selected at random from the sampling
frame, a list or a database of all
individuals in the population

• Each member of a population has an

equal chance of being included in the
sample.
• To use a SRS method:
– Make a numbered list of all the units in the
population

– Each unit should be numbered from 1 to N

(where N is the size of the population)

– Select the required number.

• The randomness of the sample is
ensured by:
• Use of “lottery’ methods
• Table of random numbers
• Computer programs
 Table of Random number
• It is a table of random numbers
constructed by a process that
1. In any position in the table, each of the
numbers 0 through 9 has a probability
1/10 of occurring.
2. The occurrence of any number in one part
of the table is independent of the
occurrence of any number in any other part
of the table.
 Random numbers
…. 8094 2525 8247 1347 7433 3620 1897 ….
…. 3563 2198 8211 9045 2618 2751 2627 ….
…. 1330 6331 3753 9693 8738 6815 1538 ….
…. 3565 0016 2243 6432 4796 6095 5283 ….
…. 7850 5925 5588 7311 2192 4545 3530 ….
…. 4490 5417 9727 6153 5901 4878 9980 ….
…. 6545 9104 9318 8819 7537 2785 9373 ….
 Example
• Suppose your school has 500 students
and you need to conduct a short survey
on the quality of the food served in the
cafeteria.
• You decide that a sample of 10 students
should be sufficient for your purposes.
• In order to get your sample, you assign
a number from 1 to 500 to each student
in your school.
• To select the sample, you use a table of
randomly generated numbers.

• Pick a starting point in the table (a row and

column number) and look at the random
numbers that appear there.

• In this case, since the data run into three

digits, the random numbers would need to
contain three digits as well.
• Ignore all random numbers after 500 because
they do not correspond to any of the students
in the school.
• Remember that the sample is without
replacement, so if a number recurs, skip over
it and use the next random number.
• The first 10 different numbers between 001
and 500 make up your sample.
• SRS has certain limitations:
– Requires a sampling frame.
– Difficult if the reference population is
dispersed.
– Minority subgroups of interest may not be
selected.
 Cont…
Advantage Disadvantage
• Cost effective • The necessity to have a
• easier way of sampling large sample size can

• Less time consuming be a major disadvantage

• Sample representative of in practical levels

population • Redundant costly and

• Require little time-consuming for

knowledge of the large studies.
population
43
 2. Systematic random sampling

• This method is the hybrid of two other methods

• Systematic sampling is to be applied only if the
given population is logically homogeneous,
because systematic sample units are uniformly
distributed over the population
• Sometimes called interval sampling
• Selection of individuals from the sampling frame
systematically rather than randomly
• Individuals are taken at regular intervals down the list
• The starting point is chosen at random
• Important if the reference population is
arranged in some order:
– Order of registration of patients
– Numerical number of house numbers
– Student’s registration books

• Taking individuals at fixed intervals

(every kth) based on the sampling
fraction, eg. if the sample includes 20%,
then every fifth (1/5)
 Steps in systematic random
sampling
1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N
(where N is the total population size).

2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing

the number of units in the population by the
desired sample size.
3. Select a number between one and K at
random. This number is called the random
start and would be the first number included in
your sample.

4. Select every Kth unit after that first number

Note: Systematic sampling should not be used

when a cyclic repetition is inherent in the
sampling frame.
 Example
• To select a sample of 100 from a
population of 400, you would need a
sampling interval of 400 ÷ 100 = 4.
• Therefore, K = 4.
• You will need to select one unit out of
every four units to end up with a total of
100 units in your sample.
• Select a number between 1 and 4 from a
table of random numbers.
• If you choose 3, the third unit on your
frame would be the first unit included in
your sample;

• The sample might consist of the following

units to make up a sample of 100: 3 (the
random start), 7, 11, 15, 19...395, 399 (up
to N, which is 400 in this case).
• Using the above example, you can see
that with a systematic sample approach
there are only four possible samples that
can be selected, corresponding to the
four possible random starts:
A. 1, 5, 9, 13...393, 397
B. 2, 6, 10, 14...394, 398
C. 3, 7, 11, 15...395, 399
D. 4, 8, 12, 16...396, 400
• Each member of the population belongs to only
one of the four samples and each sample has
the same chance of being selected.

• The main difference with SRS, any combination

of 100 units would have a chance of making up
the sample, while with systematic sampling,
there are only four possible samples.
 Linear systematic
• It follows a linear path and then stops
at the end of a particular population
• Select the unit with serial number r,
r+k, r+2k, r+3k… till n units
are selected in the sample.
Circular systematic sampling
• Here sample starts again from the
same point once again after ending
• Useful when N/n is not an integer
• To avoid this, change k to the
nearest whole number
 Systematic …
Advantages: Disadvantages:

Easier than Stratified Assumption that the

More effective than Simple population is uniform may not

always prove to be true
random sampling
Cost Effectivee

Avoids Judgments

Less Time Consuming

Higher degree of control

54
 3. Stratified random sampling
• It is done when the population is known to have
heterogeneity with regard to some factors and
those factors are used for stratification
• Using stratified sampling, the population is divided
into homogeneous, mutually exclusive groups
called strata, and
• A population can be stratified by any variable that is
available for all units prior to sampling (e.g., age,
sex, province of residence, income, etc.).
• A separate sample is taken independently
from each stratum.

• Any of the sampling methods mentioned in

this section (and others that exist) can be
used to sample within each stratum.
 Why do we need to create strata?
• It can make the sampling strategy more
efficient.
• A larger sample is required to get a more
accurate estimation if a characteristic varies
greatly from one unit to the other.
• For example, if every person in a population
had the same salary, then a sample of one
individual would be enough to get a precise
estimate of the average salary.
• This is the idea behind the efficiency
gain obtained with stratification.
– If you create strata within which units share
similar characteristics (e.g., income) and
are considerably different from units in
other strata (e.g., occupation, type of
dwelling) then you would only need a small
sample from each stratum to get a precise
estimate of total income for that stratum.
– Then you could combine these estimates
to get a precise estimate of total income for
the whole population.
• If you use a SRS approach in the whole
population without stratification, the
sample would need to be larger than the
total of all stratum samples to get an
estimate of total income with the same
level of precision.
• Stratified sampling ensures an adequate
sample size for sub-groups in the
population of interest.

• When a population is stratified, each

stratum becomes an independent
population and you will need to decide the
sample size for each stratum.
• Equal allocation:
– Allocate equal sample size to each stratum
• Proportionate allocation:
n
nj  Nj
N

– nj is sample size of the jth stratum

– Nj is target population size of the jth stratum
– n = n1 + n2 + ...+ nk is the total sample size

– N = N1 + N2 + ...+ Nk is the total target

population size
 Example: Proportionate Allocation

• Village A B C D Total
• HHs 100 150 120 130 500
• S. size ? ? ? ? 60
•
 Process of Statified Random
Sampling

• The above figure shows how different types of items are

distributed in a random population. We need to stratify the
population. 63
 Stratified Random Sampling
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
•Provides better precision
•Requires more
•Minimizing the bias
administrative works
•Representation of any section of
•Can be tedious and time
population .
consuming
• Greater accuracy can be achieved
•Sometimes hard to classify
by using small size of samples.
into classes
•saves resources.

64
 4. Cluster sampling
• Sometimes it is too expensive to carry out simple
random sampling due to:
– Population may be large and scattered.
– Complete list of the study population unavailable
– Travel costs can become expensive if interviewers
have to survey people from one end of the country to
the other.
• Cluster sampling is the most widely used to
reduce the cost
• The clusters should be homogeneous, unlike
stratified sampling where the strata are
heterogeneous
 Steps in cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling divides the population into
groups or clusters.
• A number of clusters are selected randomly to
represent the total population, and then all units
within selected clusters are included in the
sample.
• No units from non-selected clusters are included
in the sample—they are represented by those
from selected clusters.
• This differs from stratified sampling, where some
units are selected from each group.
• In contrary to stratified sampling, which is
populations are homogenous with in cluster
and heterogonous between cluster, in cluster
sampling population should be heterogeneity
within the clusters and homogeneity between
the clusters.
Process of cluster sampling

68
 Example
• In a school based study, we assume
students of the same school are
homogeneous.

• We can select randomly sections and

include all students of the selected sections
only
 Advantages
• Cost reduction/efficiency
• It creates 'pockets' of sampled units
instead of spreading the sample over the
whole territory.
• Sometimes a list of all units in the
population is not available, while a list of
all clusters is either available or easy to
create.
 Disadvantages
• Creates a loss of efficiency when compared with
SRS.

• It is usually better to survey a large number of

small clusters instead of a small number of large
clusters.
– This is because neighboring units tend to be more
alike, resulting in a sample that does not represent
the whole spectrum of opinions or situations present
in the overall population.
• Another drawback to cluster sampling is
that you do not have total control over
the final sample size.
• Since not all schools have the same
number of (say Grade 11) students and
city blocks do not all have the same
number of households, and you must
interview every student or household in
your sample, as an example, the final
size may be larger or smaller than you
expected.
 Cluster sampling

Advantages Disadvantage
• Biased samples: if chosen
• Its cheaper/costs less
group has biased opinion
• Reduced variability then the entire population
inferred to have the same
opinion.
• Error /higher sampling error

74
 Comparison
Cluster Stratified
• Population are grouped into • Population is divided into
naturally existing cluster mutually exclusive
• Sample is taken from homogenous and non
randomly selected clusters overlapping strata
• Heterogeneous within the • Sample is taken from each
group stratum
• Homogenous between groups • Homogenous within group
• selection is collectively • Heterogeneous between
• Natural bifurcation groups
• Bifurcation is imposed by the
• Objective is to reduce cost
researcher
and improve efficiency
• Objectives to increase
representation and precision
 5. Multi-stage sampling
• Similar to the cluster sampling, except that
it involves picking a sample from within
each chosen cluster, rather than including
all units in the cluster.
• This type of sampling requires at least two
stages.
• The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the
sampling unit in the first sampling
stage.

• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is

the sampling unit in the second
sampling stage, etc.
 Woreda PSU

Kebele SSU

Sub-Kebele TSU

HH
• In the first stage, large groups or clusters
are identified and selected.
• These clusters contain more population
units than are needed for the final sample.

• In the second stage, population units are

picked from within the selected clusters
(using any of the possible probability
sampling methods) for a final sample.
• If more than two stages are used, the process of
choosing population units within clusters
continues until there is a final sample.

• With multi-stage sampling, you still have the

benefit of a more concentrated sample for cost
reduction.

• However, the sample is not as concentrated as

other clusters and the sample size is still bigger
than for a simple random sample size.
• Also, you do not need to have a list of all of the
units in the population. All you need is a list of
clusters and list of the units in the selected
clusters.

• Admittedly, more information is needed in this

type of sample than what is required in cluster
sampling.

• However, multi-stage sampling still saves a great

amount of time and effort by not having to create
a list of all the units in a population.
• This method actually uses a combination of various
techniques.
• In this method, the population is divided into groups at
various levels.
• A group within a group, within a group and so on.

• The sample is finally drawn from the smallest group among all
the groups.

82
Process of Multi-stage sampling

83
 Multi- stage sampling……
• Multistage sampling can be a complex form of cluster
sampling because it is a type of sampling which involves dividing
the population into groups (or clusters).
• Then, one or more clusters are chosen at random and everyone
within the chosen cluster is sampled.
• Using all the sample elements in all the selected clusters may be
prohibitively expensive or unnecessary.
• Under these circumstances, multistage cluster sampling
becomes useful.
• The technique is used frequently when a complete list of all
members of the population does not exist and is inappropriate.
84
Multi- stage sampling……
Advantages Disadvantages
• Effective in primary data •High level of subjectivity
collection from •The presence of group-level
geographically dispersed information required
population
• Cost effectiveness and time
effectiveness
• High level of flexibility
85
 Design effects
• The loss of effectiveness by the use of cluster sampling
instead of simple random sampling is design effect.
• The design effect is basically the ratio of actual variance
under the sampling method actually used, to the variance
computed under the assumption of simple random sampling
• Working definition of design effect is that factor by how much
sample variance for the sample plan exceeds simple random
sample of same size.
• How much worse your sample is from a simple random
sample
 Formula
• Two correlation (within and between clusters)
• Measures of homogeneity within cluster (intra-class
correlation)
• Intra-class correlation: is the degree to which person or
hh in the same cluster has same characteristics
compared to another selected at random in the whole
population

• Hence deff is affected by cluster size (n)

• Where δ=intra class correlation, n is cluster size or stages
dropped down
• Rule of thumb is try deff of 2 or less
• Sample size clustered = Sample size unclustered × deff.
 Example
• Cluster size used gave an ICC of approximately 0.015.
Using this ICC as an approximation, and with a chosen
cluster size of 80 this gives us a design effect of 2.19.

• Hence the sample size will be given by

Sample size clustered = Sample size unclustered × 2.19.
6. Sampling with probability proportional
to size
• Probability sampling requires that each member
of the survey population has a chance of being
included in the sample, but it does not require
that this chance be the same for everyone.
• Requires that a sampling frame of
clusters with measures of size be
available or developed
• This information can be used in the
sampling selection in order to increase
the efficiency.
• This is known as sampling with
probability proportional to size (PPS).
• With this method, the bigger the size of the
unit, the higher the chance it has of being
included in the sample.

• For this method to achieve increased

efficiency, the measure of size needs to be
accurate.
 Steps in PPS
• List all Kebeles/clusters with their population
size/HH size
• Calculate the cumulative frequency
• Calculate the sampling interval by dividing the
total population size by the sample size, say K
• Randomly choose a number between 1 and K,
say j
• Kebeles/clusters with cumulative frequency
containing the jth, (j+k)th, …. will be included in
the sample
 Example
• Planned clusters to be included in the
study = 40
• Cumulative size of the HHs = 17,219
• Sampling interval = 17,219/40 = 430
• Random start between 1 and 430 = 73
• Clusters selected = 001, 005, 008, etc.
Cluster HH size Cum. Sampling Cluster
No. size No. selected
001 120 120 73 001
002 105 225
003 132 357
004 96 453
005 110 563 503 005
006 102 665
007 165 839
008 98 937 933 008
009 115 1,052
. . . . .
. . . . .
170 (last) 196 17,219
 When measures of cluster size are not available
• When the measures of size (population of
HH size) are not available, all clusters will
have the same chance or probability of
selection
• This is equal probability
• Decide on the number of clusters to be
included in the study
• Use SRS or systematic sampling to select
them
 B. Non-probability sampling
 - The process of selecting a sample from a population
without using (statistical) probability theory.

 - used when a sampling frame does not exist

 - Sample is not a proportion of the population and

there is no system in selecting the sample .

 - the selection depends upon the situation

• In non-probability sampling, every item has an
unknown chance of being selected.

• In non-probability sampling, there is an

assumption that there is an even distribution
of a characteristic of interest within the
population.

• For probability sampling, random is a feature

of the selection process.
• This is what makes the researcher believe
that any sample would be representative
and because of that, results will be
accurate.

• For probability sampling, random is a

feature of the selection process, rather
than an assumption about the structure of
the population.
• In non-probability sampling, since
elements are chosen arbitrarily, there is no
way to estimate the probability of any one
element being included in the sample.

• Also, no assurance is given that each item

has a chance of being included, making it
impossible either to estimate sampling
variability or to identify possible bias
• Reliability cannot be measured in non-probability
sampling; the only way to address data quality is to
compare some of the survey results with available
information about the population.

• Still, there is no assurance that the estimates will

meet an acceptable level of error.

• Researchers are reluctant to use these methods

because there is no way to measure the precision
of the resulting sample.
• Despite these drawbacks, non-probability
sampling methods can be useful when
descriptive comments about the sample
itself are desired.
• Secondly, they are quick, inexpensive and
convenient.
• There are also other circumstances, such
as researches, when it is unfeasible or
impractical to conduct probability
sampling.
 When to use it
- The researcher aim to do qualitative,
explorative study.
- The researcher has limited budget, time and
workforce.
- Initial study to be carried out again using a
randomized, probability sampling
- Randomization is impossible
 Cont.….
Advantage Disadvantage

 Cost and time effective  Can’t generalize

beyond the sample
 Response is faster
 can't calculate
 More conducive and confidence of interval
practical and margin error
 sample size
 Data is usually richer
determination is hard

103
 The most common types of
non-probability sampling
1. Convenience (haphazard) or
accidental sampling
2. Volunteer sampling
3. Judgmental (purposive) sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball (chain reference) sampling
 1. Convenience sampling

• Convenience sampling is sometimes

referred to as haphazard or accidental
sampling.
• Sampling by availability and accessibility
• It is not normally representative of the
target population because sample units
are only selected if they can be accessed
easily and conveniently.
• The obvious advantage is that the
method is easy to use, but that advantage
is greatly offset by the presence of bias.

• Although useful applications of the

technique are limited, it can deliver
accurate results when the population is
homogeneous.
• For example, a scientist could use this method to
determine whether a lake is polluted or not.

• Assuming that the lake water is well-mixed, any

sample would yield similar information.

• A scientist could safely draw water anywhere on the

lake without bothering about whether or not the
sample is representative
• Example :using a subject that are selected from clinic , a
class or an institution that is easily accessible to the
researcher
 When to use convenience
sampling?
 When the universe is not clearly defined

 When sampling unit is not clear

 When a complete list is not available

108
Cont.…

109
Cont….

Advantage Disadvantage

Save time and effort Sampling bias

inexpensive Don’t represent the whole population

Easily available High possibility of sampling error

110
 2. Volunteer sampling
• As the term implies, this type of sampling occurs
when people volunteer to be involved in the
study.
• In psychological experiments or pharmaceutical
trials (drug testing), for example, it would be
difficult and unethical to enlist random
participants from the general public.
• In these instances, the sample is taken from a
group of volunteers.
• Sometimes, the researcher offers payment
to attract respondents.

• In exchange, the volunteers accept the

possibility of a lengthy, demanding or
sometimes unpleasant process.
• Sampling voluntary participants as
opposed to the general population may
introduce strong biases.

• Often in opinion polling, only the people

who care strongly enough about the
subject tend to respond.

• The silent majority does not typically

respond, resulting in large selection
bias.
cont.….
The silent majority does not typically respond

114
 3. Judgment (purposive) or subjective
sampling
• This approach is used when a sample is taken based on
certain judgments about the overall population.
 Selecting participants because they have certain
predetermined characteristics,
 no randomization

• The underlying assumption is that the investigator will

select units that are characteristic of the population.
• Subjects are selected by certain criteria
• Judgment sampling is subject to the
researcher's biases and is perhaps even
more biased than haphazard sampling.

• Since any preconceptions the researcher

may have are reflected in the sample,
large biases can be introduced if these
preconceptions are inaccurate.
• Researchers often use this method in
exploratory studies like pre-testing of
questionnaires and focus groups.

• They also prefer to use this method in

laboratory settings where the choice of
experimental subjects (i.e., animal,
human) reflects the investigator's pre-
existing beliefs about the population.
• One advantage of judgment sampling is
the reduced cost and time involved in
acquiring the sample.
Cont.….

119
Cont.…
Advantage Disadvantage

No special knowledge of statistics is Highly prone to researcher bias

required

No time is wasted playing with Unscientific and No logic to the

mathematics selection of sample or its size

Eliminate cost and time in preparing The conclusion reached are vague
the sample

120
 4. Quota sampling
• This is one of the most common forms of
non-probability sampling.

• Sampling is done until a specific number of

units (quotas) for various sub-populations
have been selected.
• Since there are no rules as to how these
quotas are to be filled, quota sampling is
really a means for satisfying sample size
objectives for certain sub-populations.
• As with all other non-probability sampling
methods, in order to make inferences
about the population, it is necessary to
assume that persons selected are similar
to those not selected.

• Such strong assumptions are rarely valid.

• The main argument against quota
sampling is that it does not meet the basic
requirement of randomness.

• Some units may have no chance of

selection or the chance of selection may
be unknown.

• Therefore, the sample may be biased.

• Quota sampling is generally less expensive
than random sampling.

• It is also easy to administer, especially

considering the tasks of listing the whole
population, randomly selecting the sample and
following-up on non-respondents can be
omitted from the procedure.
• Quota sampling is an effective sampling
method when information is urgently
required and can be conducted without
sampling frames.

• In many cases where the population has

no suitable frame, quota sampling may be
the only appropriate sampling method.
 Quota Sampling
 Sampling is done until a specified number of units (quotas)
for various sub-populations have been selected
 The population is first segmented in to mutually exclusive
group.
 Judgment is used to select the subject from each segment
based on specified proportion.
 Mostly used in election polls and marketing survey

127
Cont.…
For example: including exactly 50 males
and 50 females in a sample of 100.

128
 When to use quota sampling

When a certain subgroup or observe

relationship between different subgroups.
Limited time frame or budget .

129
Cont.…
Advantage disadvantage

Much quicker and save time Impossible to determine sampling

error

Easily compare between the groups Sampling bias

Much easier to carry out Impossible to make inferences from

the sample to the population

Cost effective No certainty of correctness of data

130
 5. Snowball sampling
• Also called chain reference sampling
• A technique for selecting a research
sample where existing study subjects
recruit future subjects from their
acquaintances or connections.
• Thus the sample group appears to grow
like a rolling snowball.
• This sampling technique is often used in hidden
populations which are difficult for researchers to access;
Example:
 populations would be drug users or
 commercial sex workers,
 homo sexual
 meeting a homeless person, etc
• Because sample members are not selected from a
sampling frame, snowball samples are subject to
numerous biases.
• For example, people who have many friends are more
likely to be recruited into the sample.
How to select

133
Cont.…
advantage disadvantage
 Quicker to find sample  Sampling bias and margin of

 Cost effective error

 Lack of cooperation

134
135