The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

1.1 General Concepts:

• An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain (A ≈ ∞)
differential amplifier with high input impedance (Zi ≈ ∞) and
low output impedance (Zo ≈ 0).
• Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide voltage
amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators, filter
circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits.
• An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to
achieve a very high voltage gain.
• The standard operational amplifier symbol is shown in Fig. 1-1(a).
• It has two input terminals, the inverting (−) input and the non
inverting (+) input, and one output terminal.
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• Each input results in either the same or an opposite polarity (or phase)
output, depending on whether the signal is applied to the plus (+) or the
minus (−) input.
• The typical op-amp operates with two dc supply voltages, one positive and
the other negative, as shown in Fig. 1-1(b).
• Usually these dc voltage terminals are left off the schematic symbol for
simplicity but are understood to be there.
1.2 Block Diagram and Differential Amplifier of an Op-Amp
• A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuit: a
differential amplifier, a voltage amplifier, and a push-pull amplifier, as
shown in Fig. 1-2.

• A differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp, It provides

amplification of the difference voltage between the two inputs.

• The second stage is usually a class A amplifier that provides additional

gain.

• Some op-amps may have more than one voltage amplifier stage.

• A push pull class B amplifier is typically used for the output stage.
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• A differential amplifier forms the input stage of operational
amplifiers.
• The term differential comes from the amplifier's ability to amplify
the difference of two input signals applied to its inputs.
• Only the difference in the two signals is amplified; if there is no
difference, the output is zero.
• A basic differential amplifier circuit and its symbol are shown in
Fig. 1-3.
• The transistors (Q1 and Q2) and the collector resistors (RC1 and
RC2) are carefully matched to have identical characteristics.
• Notice that the two transistors share a single emitter resistor, RE.
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1.3 Op-Amp Operation Modes
• The differential amplifier exhibits three modes of operation based on the type
of input (and/or output) signals.
• These modes are single-ended, double-ended or differential, and common.
• Since the differential amplifier is the input stage of the op-amp, the op-amp
exhibits the same modes.
Single-Ended Input:
• Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected to one
input with the other input connected to ground.

• Fig. 1-4 shows the signals connected for this operation.

• In Fig. 1-4(a), the input is applied to the plus input (with minus input at
ground), which results in an output having the same polarity as the applied
input signal.
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• Fig. 1-4(b) shows an input signal applied to the minus input, the
output then being opposite in phase to the applied signal.
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Double-Ended (Differential) Input:
In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at
each input-this being a double-ended operation.

Fig. 1-5(a) shows an input, Vd, applied between the two input
terminals (recall that neither input is at ground), with the resulting
amplified output in phase with that applied between the plus and
minus inputs.

Fig. 1.5(b) shows the same action resulting when two separate
signals are applied to the inputs, the difference signal being Vi1 −
Vi2
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Double-Ended Output
• While the operation discussed so far had a single output, the op-amp can
also be operated with opposite outputs, as shown in Fig. 1-6(a).

• An input applied to either input will result in outputs from both output
terminals, these outputs always being opposite in polarity.

• Fig. 1-6(b) shows a single-ended input with a double ended output.

• As shown, the signal applied to the plus input results in two amplified
outputs of opposite polarity.

• Fig. 1-6(c) shows the same operation with a single output measured
between output terminals (not with respect to ground).
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• This difference output signal is Vo1 − Vo2.

• The difference output is also referred to as a floating signal since neither

output terminal is the ground (reference) terminal.

• Notice that the difference output is twice as large as either Vo1 or Vo2 since
they are of opposite polarity and subtracting them results in twice their
amplitude.

• Fig. 1-6(d) shows a differential input, differential output operation. The

input is applied between the two input terminals and the output taken from
between the two output terminals.

• This is fully differential operation.

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Common-Mode Operation:

When the same input signals are applied to both inputs, common-
mode operation results, as shown in Fig. 1-7.

Ideally, the two inputs are equally amplified, and since they result in
opposite polarity signals at the output, these signals cancel,
resulting in 0-V output.

Practically, a small output signal will result.

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Common-Mode Rejection:
• A significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals which are
opposite at the inputs are highly amplified.

• While those which are common to the two inputs are only slightly amplified-
the overall operation being to amplify the difference signal while rejecting
the common signal at the two inputs.

• Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally common to both

inputs, the differential connection tends to provide attenuation of this
unwanted input.

• While providing an amplified output of the difference signal applied to the

inputs. This operating feature, referred to as common-mode rejection.
1.4 Common-Mode Reject Ratio (CMRR)
• One of the more important features of a differential circuit connection, as
provided in an op-amp, is the circuit’s ability to greatly amplify signals that
are opposite at the two inputs.

• While only slightly amplifying signals that are common to both inputs.

• An op-amp provides an output component that is due to the amplification

of the difference of the signals applied to the plus and minus inputs and a
component due to the signals common to both inputs.

• Since amplification of the opposite input signals is much greater than that
of the common input signals, the circuit provides a common mode rejection
as described by a numerical value called the common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR).
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Differential Inputs:
When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the resulting difference
signal is the difference between the two inputs.

Common Inputs:
When both input signals are the same, a common signal element due to the
two inputs can be defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.

Output Voltage:
Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out-
of phase components, the resulting output can be expressed as
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• Where Ad = differential gain, and Ac = common-mode gain of the amplifier.

• Having obtained Ad and Ac, we can now calculate a value for the common-
mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which is defined by the following equation:
Exercise

Calculate the CMRR and express it in decibel for the circuit measurements
shown in Fig. 1-8. [Answers: 666.7, 56.48 dB]
Exercise

Determine the output voltage of an op-amp for input voltages of V i1 = 150

µV, Vi2 = 140 µV. The amplifier has a differential gain of A d = 4000 and the
value of CMRR is: (a) 100, and (b) 105 .
[Answers: (a) 45.8 mV, (b) 40.006 mV]
END
1.5 The Inverting Op-Amp
• Consider the configuration shown in Fig. 1-9(a).
• In this very useful application of an operational amplifier, the non inverting
input is grounded, vin is connected through R1 to the inverting input.
• And feedback resistor Rf is connected between the output and vi‾.
• Since we are using the amplifier in an inverting mode, we denote the
voltage gain by −A,

You will be ask to derive this in exam

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• In Eqn. [1-6] the gain is negative, signifying that the configuration is an

inverting amplifier, also the magnitude of vo/vin depends only on the ratio of
the resistor values.

• The gain vo/vin is a closed-loop gain of the amplifier, while A is called the
open-loop gain.
Exercise
1.6 The Non inverting Op-Amp
• Fig. 1-11(a) shows another useful application of an operational amplifier,
called the non inverting configuration.

• The input signal vin is connected directly to the non inverting input and R1 is
connected from the inverting input to ground.

• Under the ideal assumption of infinite input impedance, no current flows

into the inverting input, so i1 = if .

Be conscious of those in yellow

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• Eqn. [1-7] shows that the closed-loop gain of the non inverting amplifier, like
that of the inverting amplifier, depends only on the values of external resistors.

• Fig. 1-11(b) shows a special case of non inverting amplifier, used in

applications where power gain and impedance isolation are of primary concern.
When Rf = 0 and R1 = ∞, so the closed-loop gain is

• This configuration is called a voltage follower because vo has the same

magnitude and phase as vin.

• It has large input impedance and small output impedance, and is used as a
buffer amplifier between a high-impedance source and a low-impedance load.
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1.7 Op-Amp Analysis using Feedback Theory
• We have seen that we can control the closed-loop gain vo/vin of an
operational amplifier by introducing feedback through external
resistor combinations.

• We wish now to examine the feedback mechanism in detail and

discover some other important consequences of its use.

• Feedback theory is widely used to study the behavior of electronic

components as well as complex systems in many different
technical fields.
• So it is important to develop an appreciation and understanding of
its underlying principles.
1.7.1 Feedback in the Noninverting Op-Amp
• Fig. 1-12 shows the non inverting configuration along with an equivalent
block diagram on which we can identify the signal and feedback paths.

• “A” represents the amplifier and its open-loop gain, “β” is called the
feedback ratio and represents the output voltage that is fed back to the
input.

• ve = vin – vf . ve is often called the error voltage.

• The feedback voltage vf = βvo corresponds to vi‾ in the amplifier circuit.

• Since the feedback voltage subtracts from the input voltage, the amplifier is
said to have negative feedback.
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Exercise
Find the closed-loop gain of the amplifier in Fig. 1-13 when (a) A = ∞, (b) A =
106 , and (c) A = 103 . [Answers: (a) 10, (b) 9.9990, (c) 9.90099]
Exercise

1. An operational amplifier has open-loop gain A = 104 . Compare its closed-

loop gain with that of an ideal amplifier when (a) β = 0.1, and (b) β = 0.001.
[Answers: (a) 9.99, (b) 909.09]

2. A non inverting op-amp has open-loop gain A = 105 , feedback ratio β = 0.01,
differential input resistance rid = 20 kΩ, and open-loop output resistance ro = 75
Ω. Find the closed loop input (rif) and output (rof) resistances of the amplifier.
[Answers: 20 MΩ, 0.075 Ω]
1.7.2 Feedback in the Inverting Op-Amp
To investigate the effect of open-loop gain A and feedback ratio β on the
closed-loop gain of the inverting amplifier,
let us recall Fig. 1-9(b):
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• Once again, when A = ∞, we see that the closed-loop gain reduces to

the ideal amplifier value, −Rf /R1 (Eqn. [1-6]).
• By the superposition principle, we can analyze the contribution of
the feedback source by grounding all other signal sources.
• When this is done, as shown in Fig. 1-14, we see that the feedback
voltage in both configurations is developed across R1 and Rf by
voltage divider.
• And β = R1/(R1+Rf) in both cases.

• In view of this fact, we can write

Eqn. [1-14] as
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Towards developing a feedback model for the inverting amplifier, consider
the block diagram shown in Fig. 1-15.
• It is quite similar to Fig. 1-12(b) for the non inverting amplifier, except that
we now denote the open loop gain by –A, v represents an arbitrary input
voltage, rather than vin.
• As shown in the figure;
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• Eqn. [1-16] gives us exactly the same result (Eqn. [1-15] with vin = v) that
we obtain for the inverting amplifier.

• Therefore, we modify the block-diagram model in Fig. 1-15 by adding a

block that multiplies the input by

• The complete feedback model is shown in Fig. 1-16.

• As can be seen, the loop gain for the inverting amplifier is Aβ, the same as
that for the non inverting amplifier.
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• In closing our discussion of feedback theory, we should note once again that
the same relationship between actual and ideal closed-loop gain applies to
inverting and non inverting amplifiers.

• This relationship is

where (ideal closed-loop gain) is the closed-loop gain v o/vin that would result
if the amplifier were ideal (A = ∞).

• We saw this relationship in Eqn. 1-10 and Eqn. 1-15, repeated here:
CONT’D

• In both cases, the numerator is the closed-loop gain that would result if the
amplifier were ideal.

• Also in both cases, the greater the value of the loop gain Aβ, the closer
the actual closed-loop gain is to the ideal closed-loop gain.
Exercise
The amplifier shown in Fig. 1-17 has open-loop gain equal to −2500 and open-
loop output resistance 100Ω. Find (a) the magnitude of the loop gain (Aβ), (b)
the closed-loop gain (vo/vin), (c) the input resistance (rif) seen by vin, and (d)
the closed-loop output resistance (rof). [Answers: (a) 24.75, (b) − 96.12 (≈ −
100), (c) 1560 Ω, (d) 3.88 Ω]
END