16-Inference in First Order Logic-05-02-2025
16-Inference in First Order Logic-05-02-2025
Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences from existing
sentences. Before understanding the FOL inference rule, let's understand some basic
terminologies used in FOL.
Substitution:
Substitution is a fundamental operation performed on terms and formulas. It
occurs in all inference systems in first-order logic. The substitution is complex in
the presence of quantifiers in FOL. If we write F[a/x], so it refers to substitute a
constant "a" in place of variable "x".
Note: First-order logic is capable of expressing facts about some or all objects in
the universe.
Equality:
First-Order logic does not only use predicate and terms for making atomic
sentences but also uses another way, which is equality in FOL. For this, we can
use equality symbols which specify that the two terms refer to the same
object.
As in the above example, the object referred by the Brother (John) is similar
to the object referred by Smith. The equality symbol can also be used with
negation to represent that two terms are not the same objects.
• Universal Generalization
• Universal Instantiation
• Existential Instantiation
• Existential introduction
Universal Generalization:
Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states that if premise P(c)
is true for any arbitrary element c in the universe of discourse, then we can
have a conclusion as ∀ x P(x).
It can be represented as:
This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a similar property.
In this rule, x must not appear as a free variable
Example: Let's represent, P(c): "A byte contains 8 bits", so for ∀ x P(x) "All bytes
contain 8 bits.", it will also be true.
2. Universal Instantiation:
• Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a valid
inference rule. It can be applied multiple times to add new sentences.
• The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.
• As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a ground term for
the variable.
• The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a ground
term c (a constant within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any object in the universe
of discourse.
• It can be represented as:
Example:1.
IF "Every person like ice-cream"=> ∀x P(x) so we can infer that
"John likes ice-cream" => P(c)
Example: 2.
Let's take a famous example,
"All kings who are greedy are Evil." So let our knowledge base contains this detail as in
the form of FOL:
Example:
From the given sentence: ∃x Crown(x) ∧ OnHead (x, John),
So we can infer: Crown(K) ∧ OnHead( K, John), as long as K does not appear in the
knowledge base.
The above used K is a constant symbol, which is called Skolem constant.
The Existential instantiation is a special case of Skolemization process.
4. Existential introduction
• An existential introduction is also known as an existential generalization, which
is a valid inference rule in first-order logic.
• This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe of discourse
which has a property P, then we can infer that there exists something in the
universe which has the property P.
• It can be represented as:
• For the inference process in FOL, we have a single inference rule which is
called Generalized Modus Ponens. It is lifted version of Modus ponens.
• Generalized Modus Ponens can be summarized as, " P implies Q and P is
asserted to be true, therefore Q must be True."
• According to Modus Ponens, for atomic sentences pi, pi', q. Where there
is a substitution θ such that SUBST (θ, pi',) = SUBST(θ, pi), it can be
represented as:
Example:
We will use this rule for Kings are evil, so we will find some x such that x is
king, and x is greedy so we can infer that x is evil.