ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD AND

WAVES (ETEN304)

Electronics and Ahmadu Bello University (ABU),

Telecommunications Engineering Zaria
10/03/2025 1
Department (ETEND)
 Previous Class (Review of Vectors)

• Vector Integrals
– Line Integral
– Surface Integral
– And Volume Integral
• Integral theorems
– The divergence theorem
– Stoke’s theorem

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 REVIEW OF EM LAWS
Outline
• Electrostatics
– Coulomb’s law
• Electric field intensity (strength) (E)
• Electric flux density (D)
– Gauss’s law
– Application of Gauss law
• Magnetostatics (Magnetic field)
– Magnetic field intensity (H)
– Magnetic flux density (B)
– Gauss law for magnetic field
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 REVIEW OF EM LAWS
Outline Contd..
– Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials
– Biot - Savart's Law (General law of magnetostatic)
– Ampere's Circuital Law (Direct Current)
– Faraday’s Law (Time varying magnetic field)

• Maxwell’S Equations
– Maxwell's Equations for Eletrostatic Fields
– Maxwell’s Equations for Magnetostatic Fields
– Illustrative Problems.
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 Introduction
• Electromagnetic theory is concerned with the
study of charges at rest and in motion.
• Electromagnetic principles are fundamental to
the study of electrical engineering.
• Electromagnetic theory is also required for the
understanding, analysis and design of various
electrical, electromechanical and electronic
systems.

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 Introduction
• Electromagnetic theory can be thought of as
generalization of circuit theory.
• Electromagnetic theory deals directly with the
electric and magnetic field vectors where as
circuit theory deals with the voltages and
currents.
• Voltages and currents are integrated effects of
electric and magnetic fields respectively.

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 Introduction
• Electromagnetic field problems involve three
space variables along with the time variable
and hence the solution tends to become
correspondingly complex.
• Vector analysis is the required mathematical
tool with which electromagnetic concepts can
be conveniently expressed and best
comprehended.

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Applications of Electromagnetic theory
• This subject basically consist of static electric
fields, static magnetic fields, time-varying fields &
it’ applications.
• One of the most common applications of
electrostatic fields is the deflection of a charged
particle such as an electron or proton in order to
control it’s trajectory.
• The deflection is achieved by maintaining a
potential difference between a pair of parallel
plates.
– This principle is used in CROs, ink-jet printer etc.
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10/03/2025 9
Applications of Electromagnetic theory
• Electrostatic fields are also used for sorting of
minerals for example in ore separation.
• Other applications are in electrostatic generator and
electrostatic voltmeter.
• The most common applications of static magnetic
fields are in dc machines.
• Other applications include magnetic deflection,
magnetic separator, cyclotron, hall effect sensors,
magneto hydrodynamic generator etc.

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 Electrostatics
• Electrostatics: is a branch of science that
involves the study of various phenomena
caused by electric charges that are slowly
moving or even stationary.
– Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at
rest.
– Static charge will produce electrostatic field, E & D
electric flux density.
– Electric field is characterized by E (electric field
intensity) and D (Electric flux density).
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 Electrostatics
• The two important laws of electrostatics are:
– Coulomb‘s Law
– Gauss‘s Law
• Both these laws are used to find the electric
field due to different charge configurations.
• Coulomb‘s law is applicable in finding electric
field due to any charge configurations whereas
Gauss‘s law is applicable only when the charge
distribution is symmetrical
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 Coulomb’s Law
 Coulomb's Law states that the force between two point
charges Q1 and Q2 is directly proportional to the product
of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
 A point charge is a charge that occupies a region of space
which is negligibly small compared to the distance
between the point charge and any other object.

 Point charge is a hypothetical charge located at a single

point in space. It is an idealized model of a particle having
an electric charge.
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 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb Force
• The force between two charged objects can be
either attractive or repulsive, depending on
whether the charges are like or unlike.
• We will also assume that the charges are
concentrated into a small area – point
charges.
• Coulomb’s Experiment

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 Coulombs Experiment
• In the experiments conducted by, he showed that for
two charge bodies that are small compared with
their separation-so that they may be considered as
point charges-the following hold:
1. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of
the magnitude of charges
2. The magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the charges
3. The direction of the force is along the line joining the
charges
4. The magnitude of the force depends on the medium
5. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
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 Coulomb’s Law
• In other words Let two charges Q1 and Q2 be situated
in space and separated by a distance r as shown in
Figure 1.1 Coulomb postulated that the force ̅
between the two charges is directly proportional to
the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r
between them: Q1Q2
• Mathematically, F 2
r
kQ1Q2
F 2
r
• where k is the proportionality constant
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 Coulomb’s Law
• In SI units, Q1 and Q2 are expressed in Coulombs(C)
and r is in meters
• Force F is in Newtons (N) and
• The constant of proportionality k itself is inversely
proportional to the permittivity of the medium in
which the charges are located. That is,
1 9 Nm 2
k  8.99 x 10
4 0 C2

•  is called the permittivity of free space

0

• We are assuming the charges are in free space

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 Coulomb’s Law
• If the charges are any other dielectric medium, we
will use   0 r instead where  r is called the relative
permittivity or the dielectric constant of the medium

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 Coulomb’s Law
• The direction of the force in the above
equation should actually be defined interms of
two forces F1 and F2 experienced by Q1. and
Q2, respectively. These two forces with their
appropriate directions are given by

• Where a21 and a12 are unit vectors along the

line joining Q1 and Q2 as shown in Figure 2

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 Coulomb’s Law

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 Coulomb’s Law
Example 1: Two point charges are 5.0 m apart. If the
charges are 0.020 C and 0.030 C, what is the force between
them and is it attractive or repulsive?

F
1 q1q2
8.99 x 109 Nm

  
2  0.020 C 0.030 C 

2  
4 0 r 2 C  5.0 m 2


9 5
F 0.000216 x 10 N  2.2 x 10 N
The force is repulsive - both charges are positive.
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 Coulomb’s Law
• Example 2: A positive charge of 2µC is located 650mm in
space away from another positive charge of 1µC. Determine
the magnitude of the force between the charges.
• Solution
• From Coulombs law the force F between the charges is given
as :

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 Superposition Principle
• Superposition Principle: When we have more
than two charges in proximity, the forces
between them get more complicated. The
forces, being vectors, just have to be added
up. We call this the superposition principle.
• Superposition Principle  The resultant
force on a charge is the vector sum of the
forces exerted on it by other charges.

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 Superposition Principle
• In many physical scenarios, however, there are
usually more charges present in the space of
interest than mere two charges separated by a
distance r. These complex configurations can be
aggregated by applying the principle of resolution
and superposition of forces.
• When we have a number of point charges, to
determine the force on a particular charge due to
all other charges, we apply principle of
superposition.
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 Superposition Principle
• If we have N number of charges Q1,Q2,.........QN
located respectively at the points represented by
the position vectors , the force
experienced by a charge Q located at

• Edit here because of lack of same data

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 Field
• A field is a function that specifies a particular
physical quantity everywhere in a region.
• Depending upon the nature of the quantity
under consideration, the field may be a vector
or a scalar field.
• Example of scalar field is the electrostatic
potential in a region while electric or
magnetic fields at any point is the example of
vector field.
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 Static Electric Fields
As discussed before electrostatics can be
defined as the study of electric charges at rest.

Electric fields have their sources in electric

charges.
 Now let’s have a look at what is Electric field
Intensity at a given point.

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 Electric Field Intensity, E
• Electric Field Intensity: Electric field intensity or the
electric field strength at a point is defined as the
force per unit charge.
• Mathematically,
E = F / Q , OR F = E Q
• The force on charge Q is the product of a charge
(which is a scalar) and the value of the electric field
(which is a vector) at the point where the charge is
located. That is
or,
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 Electric Field Intensity, E
• From Coulomb's law, if we let one of the two charges,
say Q2 , be a small test charge q, we have:

• The electric field intensity at the location of the test

charge owing to the point charge Q1 is defined as :

• In general, the electric field intensity E is

defined as the vector force on a unit positive
test charge.

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 Electric Field Intensity, E

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 Electric Field Intensity, E

• And

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 Electric Field Intensity, E

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 ELECTRIC FLUX
• When charged particles are close enough as to cause
significant interaction, lines of force are generated
between them. These lines of force (otherwise
called “flux”) generally originate from positive
charges and terminate on negative charges.
• If a section of the surface is cut by a plane (see Figure
3.1), an estimate of the total number of flux lines
passing through this surface can be obtained

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 ELECTRIC FLUX

Figure 3.1: The electric flux through a normal and inclined surface.

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 ELECTRIC FLUX
• The electric flux  , through any section of this
surface can be obtained as a product of the average
flux density, D , a vector, in Coulomb per square
meter, cm 2  , and the area A , also a vector of the
section (in square meter).
• The direction of the vector A is taken to be the
outward normal to the surface
• It, therefore, follows that the electric flux through
any section of this surface is the integral of the flux
density over the area of the section of surface.
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 ELECTRIC FLUX
• In general, for any surface described by, ds ,
and located at a distance r away from a charge
Q, the electric flux  through it is related to
the flux density D by:
•  Dds (1)
• And in spherical coordinate system depicted is
by Figure 3.2,

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 ELECTRIC FLUX

Figure 3.2: The spherical coordinate system showing location of an infinitesimal surface ds

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 ELECTRIC FLUX
ds r 2 sin d d (2)
• As such, we can re-write the equation of the electric
flux emanating from a charge Q located at the centre
of a sphere as:     Dds
r  2

0  0  0

r  2
    Dr 2 sin d d
0  0  0

D  4 r 2 
• (3)
• Equation (3) describes the total flux from the surface
of the sphere of radius r, emanating from the charge at
the centre of the sphere.
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 ELECTRIC FLUX
• Since 4 r 2 is the surface area of a sphere of radius r, we
can equate the total flux emanating from the spherical
surface to the charge Q producing the flux, and write,
 Dds D  4 r 2  Q (4)
• Or D Q 2 (5)
4 r
• Noting, also, that the magnitude of the electric field
intensity, E , around a single isolated charge, Q, at a
distance r from the charge, is given by,
• E Q 2 (6)
4 r
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 ELECTRIC FLUX
• We can now establish the relation between the flux
density D emanating from charge Q to the electric
field intensity E as,
• D E  Q 2 r (7)
4 r
• The expression, in equation (4), above is, therefore,
the basis upon which Karl Freidrich Gauss (1813)
formulated the law, popularly known as Gauss’ law,
that will be discuss in the subsequent section.

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 Gauss's Law
• Gauss's Law for Electric Field: This law simply
quantifies the electric field (static or time varying) in
terms of the charge distribution associated with it.
• Gauss's law is one of the fundamental laws of
electromagnetism and it states that the total electric
flux emanating from a closed surface equals the
electric charge enclosed by that surface.
Mathematically:

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 Gauss's Law
• Where Q is the total discrete charge enclosed by
the surface s. If instead of a discrete charge, we
have charge distribution, say a volume charge
distribution  Gauss's law in this case may be
v

written in the form:

• where the volume v is enclosed by the surface s.

This equation is called the 1st Maxwell's equation of electrostatics .
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 Gauss law
• Let us consider a point charge Q located in an
isotropic homogeneous medium of dielectric
constant . The flux density at a distance r on a
surface enclosing the charge is given by:

10/03/2025 Gauss's Law 43

 Gauss’s law
• If we consider an elementary area ds, the
amount of flux passing through the
elementary area is given by ;

• But , is the elementary solid angle

subtended by the area at the location of Q.
• Therefore we can write

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 Gauss's Law
• For a closed surface enclosing the charge, we can
write:
• Which can seen to be same as what we have stated
in the definition of Gauss's Law.

This equation is called the 1st Maxwell's equation of electrostatics .

10/03/2025 45
 Application of Gauss's Law:
• Gauss's law is particularly useful in computing
E and D
• where the charge distribution has some
symmetry. We shall illustrate the application
of Gauss's Law with some examples in the
upcoming sections

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 Magnetostatic Fields
• In previous slides we have seen that an
electrostatic field is produced by static or
stationary charges.
• Magnetostatics is the branch of electromagnetics
dealing with the effects of electric charges in
steady motion (i.e, steady current or DC).
– Moving charges (Constant velocity) will produce
magnetostatic field, H & B magnetic flux density.
• Magnetic filed is characterized by H (magnetic
filed intensity) and B (magnetic flux density).
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 Magnetostatic Fields
• The source of steady magnetic field may be a
permanent magnet, a direct current or an electric
field changing with time.

• In this lecture we shall mainly consider the magnetic

field produced by a direct current (a constant
current flow ).

• The magnetic field produced due to time varying

electric field will be discussed later.
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 Magnetostatic Fields
• If charge are moving with constant velocity, a
static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is
produced. Thus, magnetostatic field originate
from currents (for instance direct current in
current carrying wires).
• Most of the equation we have derived for the
electric fields may be readily used to obtain
corresponding equations for magnetic field if the
equivalent analogous quantities are substituted.

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 Magnetostatic Fields
• This current flow may be due to magnetization currents as in
permanent magnets, electron-beam currents as in vacuum
tubes, or conduction currents as in current-carrying wires.
• In this lecture, we consider magnetic fields in free space due
to direct current.
• Our study of magnetostatics is not a dispensable luxury but
an indispensable necessity.
• The development of the motors, transformers, microphones,
compasses, telephone bell ringers, television focusing
controls, advertising displays, magnetically levitated high
speed vehicles, memory stores, magnetic separators, and so
on, involve magnetic phenomena and play an important role
in our everyday life.
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 Magnetostatic Fields
• There are two major laws governing the magnetostatic
fields:
1. Biot-Savart's law and,
2. Ampere's circuital law
• Like Coulomb's law, Biot-Savart's law is the general law
of magnetostatics.
• Just as Gauss's law is a special case of Coulomb's law,
Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-Savart's law and
is easily applied in problems involving symmetrical
current distribution.
• Usually, the magnetic field intensity is represented by
10/03/2025 H 51
the vector .
 BIOT-SAVART'S LAW
• In simple term this law relates the magnetic
field intensity dH produced at a point P due to a
differential current element as shown in
Figure below.

• Reading Assignment
10/03/2025 52
 BIOT-SAVART'S LAW
• Biot-Savart's law states that the magnetic field
intensity dHproduced at a point P, as shown in Figure
7.1, by the differential current element ldl is
proportional to the product ldl and the sine of the
angle  between the element and the line joining P
to the element and is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance R between P and the element.
• That is, ldl sin 
dH 
R2

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 BIOT-SAVART'S LAW
• Or kdl sin 
dH =
• R2 (7.2)
• where k is the constant of proportionality. In SI units, k =
l/4π, so eq. (7.2) becomes
• kdl sin  (7.3)
dH =
4 R 2
• From the definition of cross product in eq. (1.21), it is
easy to notice that eq. (7.3) is better put in vector form
as

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 BIOT-SAVART'S LAW
• where R = |R| and aR = R/R. Thus the direction of dH
can be determined by the righthand rule with the
right-hand thumb pointing in the direction of the
current, the right-hand fingers encircling the wire in
the direction of dH as shown in Figure 7.2(a).
• Alternatively, we can use the right-handed screw rule
to determine the direction of dH: with the screw
placed along the wire and pointed in the direction of
current flow, the direction of advance of the screw is
the direction of dH as in Figure 7.2(b).
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 BIOT-SAVART'S LAW

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 Reading Assignment
• Study
– Biot-Savart's law
– The derivation of Biot-Savart's law
– Its Appliacation

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 AMPERE'S CIRCUIT LAW
• Ampere's circuit law states that the line integral of the
tangential component of the magnetic field H around a
closed path is the same as the net current I enc enclosed
by the path.
• In other words, the circulation of H equals I ; that is,
enc
• H dl I enc (7.16)
• Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily
applied to determine H when the current distribution is
symmetrical.
• The total current I enc can be written as,
I enc J ds
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 Ampere's Circuital Law
• It should be noted that the directions of the contour
c and the element of area ds should follow the right-
hand rule. Also, both surface integrals must be
evaluated on the same surface.

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 Ampere’s Circuital Law in Integral Form
(Cont’d)

dl By convention, dS is
taken to be in the
dS direction defined by the
S
right-hand rule applied
to dl.
Since volume current
density is the most
I enc J ds general, we can write
s Iencl in this way.

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 AMPERE'S CIRCUIT LAW
• By applying Stoke's theorem to the left-hand side of eq.
(7.16), we obtain

• But

• Hence
• Comparing the surface integrals in eqs. (7.17) and
(7.18) clearly reveals that

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 AMPERE'S CIRCUITAL LAW
• This is the third Maxwell's equation to be derived; it
is essentially Ampere's circuital law in differential (or
point) form whereas eq. (7.16) is the integral form.
From eq. (7.19), we should observe that ; that
is, magnetostatic field is not conservative.

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 Applications of Ampere's circuital law:

1. It is used to find 𝐻 ̅and 𝐵̅ due to any type of

2. If 𝐻̅or 𝐵̅is known then it is also used to find

current distribution.

current enclosed by any closed path.

• We will illustrate the application of Ampere's Law
with some examples.

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 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

• The magnetic flux density B is similar to the electric

flux density D . As D =  0 E in free space, the
magnetic flux density B is related to the magnetic
field intensity H according to:
B  0 H
• where 0 is a constant known as the permeability of
free space. The constant is in henrys/meter (H/m)
and has the value of

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 MAGNETIC FLUX

• The precise definition of the magnetic field B, in

terms of the magnetic force, will be given in the next
slides.

• The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

 B ds
s
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 MAGNETIC FLUX

• Where the magnetic flux  is in webers (Wb) and

the magnetic flux density B is in webers/square
meter (Wb/m2) or teslas.
• The magnetic flux line is the path to which B is
tangential at every point in a magnetic field.
• It is the line along which the needle of a magnetic
compass will orient itself if placed in the magnetic
field. For example, the magnetic flux lines due to a
straight long wire are shown in Figure 7.16.

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 Magnetic Flux
• The magnetic flux through a surface is given
by:
 B ds Wb

s
• In the case of electrostatic field, we have seen that if
the surface is a closed surface, the net flux passing
through the surface is equal to the charge enclosed
by the surface .

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 Magnetic Flux

Fig 6. Magnetic field/ flux lines of a straight current carrying

conductor

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 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY
Gauss law of magnetic field (time varying magnetic field)
• In an electrostatic field, the flux passing through a closed
surface is the same as the charge enclosed; that is,

• Thus it is possible to have an isolated electric charge as shown

in Figure 7.17(a), which also reveals that electric flux lines are
not necessarily closed.
• Thus it is possible to have an isolated electric charge as shown
in Figure 7.17(a), which also reveals that electric flux lines are
not necessarily closed.
• Unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines always close upon
themselves as in Figure 7.17(b). This is due to the fact that it
is not possible to have isolated magnetic poles (or magnetic
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 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

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 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY
• For example, if we desire to have an isolated magnetic pole by
dividing a magnetic bar successively into two, we end up with
pieces each having north and south poles as illustrated in
Figure 7.18. We find it impossible to separate the north pole
from the south pole.

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 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

• An isolated magnetic charge does not exist.

• Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a
magnetic field must be zero; that is,

BdS 0
• This equation is referred to as the law of
conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss's law for
magnetostatic fields just as is Gauss's law
for electrostatic fields. Although the magnetostatic
field is not conservative, magnetic flux is conserved.

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 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

• By applying the divergence theorem to eq. (7.33), we

obtain
• (7.33)

• Or (7.34)

• This equation is called the Second Maxwell's equation .

Equation (7.33) or (7.34) shows that magnetostatic fields
have no sources or sinks. Equation (7.34) suggests that
magnetic field lines are always continuous.
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Maxwell’s 2nd equation for static magnetic
fields: (Gauss Law)
• Gauss's Law for Magnetic Field: Gauss's law for
the magnetic field states that the total
magnetic flux lines emanating from a closed
surface should be equal to zero, hence;
Bds 0
s

• Once again, the dot product in the surface

integral emphasizes the fact that we are
concerned with the component of the magnetic
flux in the direction of a unit outward normal to
the surface s.
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Maxwell’s 2nd equation for static magnetic
fields: (Gauss Law)
• In other words, the surface integral accounts
for the total magnetic flux emanating from the
closed surfaces.
• This law mainly provides a constraint on the
physical characteristic of the magnetic flux
lines.
• This means that in solving an electromagnetic
field problem, the obtained solution for the
magnetic field should satisfy this property.
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Maxwell’s 2nd equation for static magnetic
fields: (Gauss Law)
• For example, let us consider the magnetic flux
lines produced by the straight current-carrying
conductor of example 1.13.
• The flux lines produced by a straight conductor
carrying a constant current I, are shown once
again for convenience in Figure 1.48.
• If we consider a surfaces arbitrarily placed
outside the conductor, it can be seen from Figure
1.48 that the number of flux lines entering the
surfaces is equal to the number of flux lines
outflowing from the surface.
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Maxwell’s 2nd equation for static magnetic
fields: (Gauss Law)

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Maxwell’s 2nd equation for static magnetic
fields: (Gauss Law)
• This can be shown to be true for any other
configuration of the magnetic flux lines produced by
various geometries of current-carrying conductors.
• In other words, what Gauss's law for the magnetic
field really emphasizes is the fact that magnetic flux
lines are closed lines. They are unlike the electric flux
lines that originate on positive charges and terminate
on negative charges.
• Magnetic flux lines are closed lines, and the number
entering a closed surface S is equal to the number
emanating from the surface.
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Maxwell’s 2nd equation for static magnetic
fields: (Gauss Law)
• Comparison between this Gauss's law and Gauss's
law for the electric field also emphasizes the fact
that magnetic charges do not exist.
• This is because Gauss's law for the magnetic field can
be obtained from the law in the electric field case by
replacing the electric flux by the magnetic flux and
also equating the enclosed charge to zero.

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 Faraday's Law
• After Oersted discovered in 1820 that current-
carrying conductors produce or are associated with
magnetic fields.
• Faraday tried experimentally to prove that the
reverse phenomenon is also true, that is, the magnetic
fields are capable of producing electric currents.
• His experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 1.49
where he used a transmitting circular loop T
connected to a battery through the switch K to
generate the magnetic flux B.

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 Faradays Law (New)
• Michael Faraday, in 1831 discovered experimentally
that a current was induced in a conducting loop when
the magnetic flux linking the loop changed.
• In terms of fields, we can say that a time varying
magnetic field produces an electromotive force (emf)
which causes a current in a closed circuit.
• The quantitative relation between the induced emf
(the voltage that arises from conductors moving in a
magnetic field or from changing magnetic fields) and
the rate of change of flux linkage developed based on
experimental observation is known as Faraday's law.
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 Faradays Law (New)
• Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of
wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the
coil. No matter how the change is produced, the
voltage will be generated.
• The change could be produced by changing the
magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward or
away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the
magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the
magnet, etc.

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 Faradays Law (New)
• Faraday's law is a fundamental relationship which
comes from Maxwell's equations. It serves as a
succinct summary of the ways a voltage (or emf) may
be generated by a changing magnetic environment.
• The induced emf in a coil is equal to the negative of
the rate of change of magnetic flux times the
number of turns in the coil. It involves the
interaction of charge with magnetic field.

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 Faradays law
• Mathematically

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 Faraday's Law
• He then placed a receiving conducting loop R
perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines and
measured the induced currents using an ammeter A .

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 Faraday's Law
• The experimental observations obtained from Faraday's
experiment are shown in Figure 1.50 where it can be seen that a
current would circulate in the receiving loop only on closing and
opening the switch K.
• During the period when the switch was in the on position, there
was no current circulating in the receiving loop even with the
presence of the current in the transmitting loop and the
associated magnetic flux density B.

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 Faraday's Law
• The conclusion reached by Faraday, therefore, was that
only time-varying magnetic fields (i.e., during the build-
up and decay of the magnetic field in the process of
opening and closing the switch) produce currents in the
receiving loop.
• In summary, therefore, the experimental observations in
Faraday's experiments can be explained in terms of the
electric field actually generated by the time-varying
magnetic field. Quantitatively. these observations are
mathematically expressed as follows:
d
emf E dl  B ds
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c dl s 87
 Faraday's Law
• Our final comment regarding Faraday's law is actually
related to the physical significance of the negative
sign in front of the rate of change of the magnetic
flux term.
• Lenz's law (Assignment)

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 TIME-VARYING ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS:
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
• Ampere’s law state that a current carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field.
• About 1831, Michael Faraday, an English physicist,
discovered a reverse effect such that a changing
magnetic field could produce a current in a close
circuit.
• Faraday’s law explains the working principles of most
of the electrical motors, generators, transformers
and inductors in use in electrical engineering today.

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 Faraday's Law
• A simple illustration of faraday’s law is a loop of wire
with a bar magnet moving towards or away from the
loop such that the magnetic flux of the bar magnet
induces a current in the loop.
• When the bar magnet moves towards the loop, the
induced current moves in one direction, but when
the magnet moves away, the current flows in the
opposite direction.

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 Faraday's Law
• The first two terms of the left-hand side of this equation
simply indicate that the induced electromotive force (emf)
between the two terminals of the receiving loop is equal
to the work done by the induced electric field in moving
the free charges along the contour c of the receiving loop.
• The first and last terms of this equation emphasize the
general characteristic of Faraday's law, which states that
time-varying magnetic fields generate electric field and
the fact that the detection of this field by placing the
receiving loop nearby is nothing but a means to realize its
presence.

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