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IT2005
System Analysis
& Design
Week 5 & 6 -Major Components of Systems Development

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Major components of system development

1. Methodology
2. Modeling Methods or Techniques
3. Tools

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Methodology
• A very formal and accurate system
development process that defines a set of
– Activities
Methodology
– Methods
– Best practices
– Deliverables Methods Tools
Or Techniques
– Automated tools

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Methodology..
Provides the framework
1. Has a predefined set of steps
2. Ensures that systems are built in the most effective
way
Eg:
SSADM (structured methodologies)
STRADIS (Structured Analysis, Design and
Implementation of Information Systems)
YSM (Yourdon Systems Method)
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Methodology

Modeling Methods Tools

Or Techniques Eg: Rational rose

Eg: Class diagram,

usecase diagram

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Modeling method
• A set of techniques used to implement a Methodology.
• Data Flow Diagrams
– A process model
– Depict the flow of data through a system and the work performed
by the system
• Entity Relationship Diagrams
– A data model
– Depict data in terms of entities and relationships described by the
data
– Consists of several notations
• Structure Charts etc.
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Tools
Tools are Software systems and they assist analysts
and designers to build information systems.
General Aim :
– Decrease the human effort required to develop
the software
– Increase the quality of software
– Tools will support methodologies but will not
replace system analysts.
e.g. Easy Case, Rational Rose

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Underlying Principles for System
Development methodology
P1: Get the system users involved
P2: Use a problem-solving approach
P3: Establish phases and activities.
P4 : Document through out Development
P5: Establish standards
P6 :Manage the process and Projects
P7:Justify systems as Capital Investments.
P8:Don’t be afraid to cancel or revise scope.
P9:Divide and conquer
P10: Design systems for growth and change.
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What is a Software Process?

• A set of ordered tasks involving activities ,
constraints and resources that produce a
software system.

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Software process models

• Waterfall model
• Prototyping models
• Evolutionary models
• The spiral model
• Formal development
• Incremental development
• Rapid Application Development
• Unified Process
• Agile Process
• Extreme Programming (XP)
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•
The Waterfall model
Separate and distinct phases of specification
and development
• A linear sequential model
requirements
analysis & spec
software
design
coding

testing

Maintenance
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Software Life Cycle Models

• Waterfall lifecycle

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Waterfall Strengths
Easy to understand, easy to use
Provides structure to inexperienced staff
Milestones are well understood
Sets requirements stability
Good for management control (plan, staff,
track)
Works well when quality is more important
than cost or schedule
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Problems with Waterfall Development
Approach

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Problems with Waterfall Development
Approach……
There are several problems with this approach.
1. It has a rigid design
2. Inflexible
3. It has a top-down procedure
4. One phase must be completed before the next phase
starts
5. No phase can be repeated
6. Time consuming
There are several criticisms of the Waterfall
development approach
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Modified Waterfall Development Approach

• Uses the same phases as the pure waterfall development approach.

• Allow some of the stages to overlap, such as the requirements stage

and the design stage.

• Another common modification is to incorporate prototyping into the

requirements phases.

• Overlapping stages make it possible to integrate feedback from the

design phase into the requirements.

• Progress is more difficult to track.

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When to use the Waterfall Model

 The linear cycles are usually best suited to
problems which are well understood and highly
structured.
 Attractive for large problems.
 Projects which have clear and stable
requirements.
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Prototyping
It is very difficult for end-users to anticipate how they will use
new software systems to support their work. If the system is
large and complex, it is probably impossible to make this
assessment before the system is built and put into use.

A prototype ( a small version of the system) can be used to clear

the vague requirements. A prototype should be evaluated with
the user participation.
There are two types of Prototyping techniques
* Throw-away Prototyping
* Evolutionary Prototyping
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Throw-away and Evolutionary Prototyping

Throw-away Executable prototype +

prototyping System specification

Outline
Requirements
Evolutionary
prototyping Delivered system
Throw-away Prototyping
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establish develop evaluate specify

outline prototype prototype system
specification
components

Delivered
design and validate software
implement system
system system
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Throw-away Prototyping

The objective is to understand the system

requirements clearly. Starts with poorly understood
requirements. Once the requirements are cleared,
the system will be developed from the beginning.

This model is suitable if the requirements are vague

but stable.
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Some problems with Throw-away Prototyping
1. Important features may have been left out of the prototype to
simplify rapid implementation. In fact, it may not be possible
to prototype some of the most important parts of the system
such as safety-critical functions.
2. An implementation has no legal standing as a contract
between customer and contractor.
3. Non-functional requirements such as those concerning
reliability, robustness and safety cannot be adequately tested
in a prototype implementation.
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Evolutionary Prototyping

Develop abstract Build prototype Evaluate prototype

specification system system

NO

YES

Deliver System
system Adequate?
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Structured Evolutionary Prototyping
Strengths
1. Customers can “see” the system requirements as they are
being gathered
2. Developers learn from customers
3. A more accurate end product
4. Unexpected requirements accommodated
5. Allows for flexible design and development
6. Interaction with the prototype stimulates awareness of
additional needed functionality

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Prototyping Weaknesses
• Prototyping can lead to false expectations.
• Prototyping can lead to poorly designed systems.
• Overall maintainability may be overlooked
• The customer may want the prototype delivered.
• Process may continue forever (scope creep)
• Continual change tends to corrupt the structure of
the prototype system. Maintenance is therefore
likely to be difficult and costly.

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Disadvantages
* Prototype usually evolve so quickly that it is not cost- effective to
produce greater deal of documentation
* Continual change tends to corrupt the structure of the prototype
system. Maintenance is therefore likely to be difficult and costly.
* It is not clear how the range of skills which is normal in software
engineering teams can be used effectively for this mode of
development.
* Languages which are good for prototyping not always best for final
product.
 The RAD Model www.hndit.com
Team 3
Team 2
Business
Team 1 Business modeling
Business modeling
Data
modeling
Data modeling
modeling
Data Process
modeling modeling
Process

Process modeling Application

modeling generation
Application
Application generation Testing &
generation turnover
Testing &

Testing & turnover

turnover

60 –90 days
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Processes in the RAD model

Business modelling - The information flow in a business system considering its

functionality.
Data Modelling - The information flow defined as part of the business modelling
phase is refined into a set of data objects that are needed to support the business
Process Modelling - The data objects defined in the data modelling phase are
transformed to achieve the information flow necessary to implement business
functions.
Application generation - RAD assumes the use of 4GL or visual tools to generate the
system using reusable components.
Testing and turnover
New components must be tested and all interfaces must be fully exercised
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Cont. RAD lifecycle

Contract Prototype
Requirement Development
Design
Definition/
Refinement

Cutomer
Prototype
Feedback Review

Deployment

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The RAD model

• Rapid Application Development (RAD) is an
incremental software development process model
that emphasizes an extremely short development
cycle.
• If requirements are well understood and project
scope is constrained, the RAD process enables a
development team to create a ‘fully functional
system’ within very short time periods (eg. 60 to
90 days)
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Some problems with the RAD model

1. RAD requires sufficient human resources to create
right number of RAD teams
2. RAD requires developers and customers who are
committed to the rapid-fire activities necessary to get a
system completed in a much abbreviated time frame.
3. If a system cannot be properly modularized, building
the components necessary for RAD will be problematic.
4. RAD is not applicable when technical risks are high.
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Incremental Model

conception

architecture
deliver 1st
structure Increment
analysis design code test
deliver 2nd
feedback
Increment
analysis design code test

feedback deliver 3rd

Increment
analysis design code test
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Incremental Development
• The Incremental development model involves
developing the system in an incremental fashion.
• The most important part of the system is fist delivered
and the other parts of the system are then delivered
according to their importance.
• Incremental development is more manageable than
evolutionary prototyping as the normal software process
standards are followed.
• Plans and documentation must be produced
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Iterative Development Approach

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Iterative Development Approach

• Iterative development approach completes the entire IS in
successive iterations.
• Each iteration does some
– analysis
– design
– construction
• Allows versions of usable information to be delivered in
regular and shorter time frames.
• The iteration process helps to develop a part of the new
system and place it into operation as quickly as possible.
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•
Spiral model
The spiral model (Boehm, 1988) aims at risk reduction by any
means in any phase.
• quadrant 1
– determine objectives of that phase
– alternatives and constraints.
• quadrant 2
– analyzed form the viewpoint of risk
– solutions to minimize these risks are investigated, often using
prototyping.
• quadrant 3
– where the traditional waterfall model phases are put into practice.
• Quadrant4
– the results of the risk-reduction strategies
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Spiral Quadrant
Determine objectives, alternatives and constraints

• Objectives: functionality, performance,

hardware/software interface, critical
success factors, etc.
• Alternatives: build, reuse, buy, sub-
contract, etc.
• Constraints: cost, schedule, interface,
etc.
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Spiral Quadrant
Evaluate alternatives, identify and resolve risks

• Study alternatives relative to objectives and

constraints

• Identify risks (lack of experience, new

technology, tight schedules, poor process, etc.

• Resolve risks (evaluate if money could be lost

by continuing system development)
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Spiral Quadrant
Develop next-level product
• Typical activates:
– Create a design
– Review design
– Develop code
– Inspect code
– Test product

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Spiral Quadrant
Plan next phase
• Typical activities
– Develop project plan
– Develop configuration management plan
– Develop a test plan
– Develop an installation plan

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Spiral Model Strengths
• Provides early indication of insurmountable
risks, without much cost
• Users see the system early because of rapid
prototyping tools
• Critical high-risk functions are developed first
• The design does not have to be perfect
• Users can be closely tied to all lifecycle steps
• Early and frequent feedback from users

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Spiral Model Weaknesses
• Time spent for evaluating risks too large for
small or low-risk projects
• The model is complex
• Risk assessment expertise is required
• May be hard to define objective, verifiable
milestones that indicate readiness to proceed
through the next iteration

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When to use Spiral Model

• When creation of a prototype is appropriate
• When costs and risk evaluation is important
• For medium to high-risk projects
• Long-term project commitment unwise because of potential
changes to economic priorities
• Users are unsure of their needs
• Requirements are complex
• New product line
• Significant changes are expected (research and exploration)
•
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V-Shaped SDLC Model

Testing of the product is planned in parallel with a corresponding

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V-Shaped Strengths
• Emphasize planning for verification and
validation of the product in early stages of
product development
• Each deliverable must be testable
• Project management can track progress by
milestones
• Easy to use

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V-Shaped Weaknesses
• Does not easily handle concurrent events
• Does not handle iterations or phases
• Does not easily handle dynamic changes in
requirements
• Does not contain risk analysis activities

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Waterfall vs Agile
Timeboxing

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RAD: Definition?
• Many Definitions : same philosophy
• Definition 1:
– A software development process that allows
usable systems to be built within a short period
(as little as 2-3 months), often with compromises.
– It is a generic term with the meaning “speedy
development” or “Shorter schedule”

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RAD
• Rapid Application Development (RAD) refers
to a type of software development which uses
“optimal” planning in favor of rapid
prototyping.
• The "planning" of software developed using
RAD is interleaved with writing the software
itself.
• The lack of extensive pre-planning generally
allows software to be written much faster, and
makes it easier to change requirements.

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RAD lifecycle
• RAD compresses the step-by-step
development process into an iterative process.
– User requirements are refined.
– A system is designed.
– A prototype is developed.
– The prototype is reviewed by end-user.
– User provide feedback.
– The process is repeated.

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Review Questions

1. The following are initial requirements specified by some customers. Identify the
most suitable process models for these software projects.
(a) “ I need to develop a simple library system for my school. I know the
requirements very well”
(b) “I need to develop a management information system for my organization,. I may
use it for all the branches in several location in Sri Lanka. I might use it on the
Internet”.
(c ) “ I need to develop a software system to control a space shuttle”