The Plant Cell
Robert Hooke – first saw cells - 1665
Hooke’s Microscope
Hooke’s drawing of Cork Cells
Development of Cell Theory of Life
• 1838 – Matthias Schleiden – stated all
plants composed of cells
• 1839 – Theodor Schwann – stated all
animals also composed of cells – thus
claimed all living things composed of cells
• 1858 – Rudolf Virchow – all cells come
from preexisting cells
Developers of Cell Theory
Matthias Schleiden Theodor Schwann Rudolf Virchow
Cell Theory
• 1. All organisms are
made up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic
unit of structure and
function in all
organisms.
3. All cells come from
cells that already
exist.
Plant cells
Plant Cells Protistan Cells Flagella
1 m
Cell
5 m
8 m
Cell wall
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Nucleolus
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Nucleus
Nucleolus Chloroplast
Chlamydomonas
Cells from duckweed (colorized SEM) Cell wall
(colorized TEM) Chlamydomonas
(colorized TEM)
BioFlix: Tour of a Plant Cell
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHDDk0pHEl4
Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane has
several functions
1. it mediates the transport
of substances into and
out of the protoplasm
2. it coordinates the
synthesis and assembly
of cellulose microfibrils
3. it relays hormonal and
environmental signals
involved in the control of
cell growth and
differentiation
Selective Permeable Nature due
to---
• Integral membrane proteins
• Pumps
• Channels
• Cotransporters
• Transporters type
• Hydrophobicity
• Chemical or Electrical potential gradient
• Proton gradient
The hydrophobic effect drives rearrangement of lipids, including the
formation of bilayers
Membrane Structure
Endocytosis vs Exocytosis
The endomembrane system regulates
protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell
• Components of the endomembrane system
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
• These components are either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
The Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Biosynthetic Factory
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for
more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
• The ER membrane is continuous with the
nuclear envelope
• There are two distinct regions of ER
– Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
– Rough ER, surface is studded with ribosomes
Smooth ER
Nuclear
envelope
Rough ER
ER lumen
Cisternae Transitional ER
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle
200 nm
Smooth ER Rough ER
ER
Functions of Smooth ER
• The smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
– Metabolizes carbohydrates
– Detoxifies drugs and poisons
– Stores calcium ions
Functions of Rough ER
• The rough ER
– Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded
to carbohydrates)
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are
housed in the nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes
• The nucleus contains most of the DNA in
a eukaryotic cell
• Ribosomes use the information from the
DNA to make proteins
The Nucleus: Information Central
• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes
and is usually the most conspicuous organelle
• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the cytoplasm
• The nuclear membrane is a double membrane;
each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
Figure 6.9
1 m
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Rough ER
Pore
complex
Surface of nuclear
envelope Ribosome
Close-up
0.25 m
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
1 m
Pore complexes (TEM)
Nuclear lamina (TEM)
Figure 6.9a
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Rough ER
Pore
complex
Ribosome
Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
• Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules
from the nucleus
• The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the
nuclear lamina, which is composed of protein
• In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units
called chromosomes
• Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA
molecule associated with proteins
• The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are
together called chromatin
• Chromatin condenses to form discrete
chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide
• The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is
the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
Plant
Chromosomes
Potato Chromosomes
Ophioglossum reticulatum
1252 chromosomes
35 cm high
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and
protein
• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations
– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the
nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
0.25 m
Free ribosomes in cytosol
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes bound to ER
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
TEM showing ER and
ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome
Lysosomes: Digestive
Compartments
• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes that can digest macromolecules
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
• Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment inside the lysosome
Animation: Lysosome Formation
https://youtube.com/shorts/wiJ53kBIkuM?
feature=share
• Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests
the molecules
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own
organelles and macromolecules, a process called
autophagy
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Phagocytosis vs Autophagy
Vesicle containing
1 m
Nucleus two damaged 1 m
organelles
Mitochondrion
fragment
Lysosome Peroxisome
fragment
Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Lysosome
Plasma membrane Peroxisome
Digestion
Food vacuole Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle
(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance
Compartments
• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several
vacuoles, derived from endoplasmic reticulum and
Golgi apparatus
• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,
hold organic compounds and water
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Central
Nucleus vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
5 m
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Plasma
membrane
Golgi
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi
Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi
Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aT7gBNAWopo
Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to
another
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a
metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites
of photosynthesis
• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles
The Evolutionary Origins of
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities
with bacteria
– Enveloped by a double membrane
– Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA
molecules
– Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in
cells
Figure 6.16
Endoplasmic Nucleus
reticulum
Engulfing of oxygen- Nuclear
using nonphotosynthetic envelope
prokaryote, which
becomes a mitochondrion
Mitochondrion Ancestor of
eukaryotic cells
(host cell)
Engulfing of
photosynthetic
prokaryote
At least
Nonphotosynthetic one cell Chloroplast
eukaryote
Mitochondrion
Photosynthetic eukaryote
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy
Conversion
• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells
• They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner
membrane folded into cristae
• The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that
synthesize ATP
10 m
Intermembrane space
Outer Mitochondria
membrane
DNA
Inner
Free Mitochondrial
membrane
ribosomes DNA
in the Cristae
mitochondrial Nuclear DNA
Matrix
matrix
0.1 m
(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion (b) Network of mitochondria in a protist
cell (LM)
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light
Energy
• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll,
as well as enzymes and other molecules that
function in photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green
organs of plants and in algae
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Chloroplast structure includes
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a
granum
– Stroma, the internal fluid
• The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles,
called plastids
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6.18
Ribosomes 50 m
Stroma
Inner and outer
membranes
Granum
Chloroplasts
(red)
DNA
Thylakoid Intermembrane space 1 m
(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast (b) Chloroplasts in an algal cell
Peroxisomes: Oxidation
• Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic
compartments bounded by a single membrane
• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and
convert it to water
• Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different
functions
• How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is
still unknown
Figure 6.19
1 m
Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
The cytoskeleton is a network of
fibers that organizes structures and
activities in the cell
• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending
throughout the cytoplasm
• It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
• It is composed of three types of molecular structures
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments
10 m
Roles of the Cytoskeleton:
Support and Motility
• The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and
maintain its shape
• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility
• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails”
provided by the cytoskeleton
• Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may
help regulate biochemical activities
Figure 6.21
Vesicle
ATP
Receptor for
motor protein
Motor protein Microtubule
(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
(a)
Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 m
(b)
Components of the Cytoskeleton
• Three main types of fibers make up the
cytoskeleton
– Microtubules are the thickest of the three
components of the cytoskeleton
– Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the
thinnest components
– Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in
a middle range
Animation: Lysosome Formation
Actin Network in Crawling Cells
https://youtu.be/wJyUtbn0O5Y
10 m
Column of tubulin dimers
25 nm
Tubulin dimer
Table 6.1b
10 m
Actin subunit
7 nm
Table 6.1c
5 m
Keratin proteins
Fibrous subunit (keratins
coiled together)
812 nm
Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of
centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a ring
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6.22
Centrosome Microtubule
Centrioles
0.25 m
Longitudinal
section of
one centriole
Microtubules Cross section
of the other centriole
Cilia and Flagella
• Microtubules control the beating of cilia and
flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells
• Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns
• Cilia and flagella share a common structure
– A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma
membrane
– A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
– A motor protein called dynein, which drives the
bending movements of a cilium or flagellum
Figure 6.23
Direction of swimming
(a) Motion of flagella
5 m
Direction of organism’s movement
Power stroke Recovery stroke
(b) Motion of cilia
15 m
0.1 m Outer microtubule Plasma membrane
doublet
Dynein proteins
Central
microtubule
Radial
spoke
Microtubules Cross-linking
proteins between
outer doublets
(b) Cross section of
Plasma motile cilium
membrane
Basal body
0.5 m 0.1 m
(a) Longitudinal section Triplet
of motile cilium
(c) Cross section of
basal body
• How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia
− Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the
outer microtubules
– Protein cross-links limit sliding
– Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets to
curve, bending the cilium or flagellum
Microtubule
doublets ATP
Dynein protein
(a) Effect of unrestrained dynein movement
Cross-linking proteins
ATP
between outer doublets
1 3
2
Anchorage
in cell
(b) Effect of cross-linking proteins (c) Wavelike motion
Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in
diameter, built as a twisted double chain of actin
subunits
• The structural role of microfilaments is to bear
tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell
• They form a 3-D network called the cortex just inside
the plasma membrane to help support the cell’s
shape
• Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of
microvilli of intestinal cells
Figure 6.26
Microvillus
Plasma membrane
Microfilaments (actin
filaments)
Intermediate filaments
0.25 m
• Microfilaments that function in cellular motility
contain the protein myosin in addition to actin
• In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are
arranged parallel to one another
• Thicker filaments composed of myosin
interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers
Muscle cell
0.5 m
Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head
(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction
Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
gel with actin network
100 m
Inner cytoplasm: sol
with actin subunits
Extending
pseudopodium
(b) Amoeboid movement
Chloroplast 30 m
(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells
Muscle cell
0.5 m
Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head
(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction
• Localized contraction brought about by actin
and myosin also drives amoeboid movement
• Pseudopodia (cellular extensions) extend and
contract through the reversible assembly and
contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments
• Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm
within cells
• This streaming speeds distribution of materials
within the cell
• In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel
transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming
Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=BB5rvjZzgFU
Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments range in diameter from 8–12
nanometers, larger than microfilaments but smaller
than microtubules
• They support cell shape and fix organelles in place
• Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes
Extracellular components and
connections between cells help
coordinate cellular activities
• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are
external to the plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include
– Cell walls of plants
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
– Intercellular junctions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cell wall
Cell Walls of Plants
• The cell wall is an extracellular structure that
distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have
cell walls
• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
• Plant cell walls may have multiple layers
– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible
– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls of
adjacent cells
– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between
the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall
• Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant
cells
Video E-cadherin Expression, go to Animation
and Video Files
Figure 6.28
Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Middle
lamella
1 m
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls
Plasmodesmata
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of
Animal Cells
• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an
elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma
membrane called integrins
Collagen Polysaccharide
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID molecule
Proteoglycan Carbo-
complex hydrates
Fibronectin Core
protein
Integrins
Proteoglycan
molecule
Plasma
membrane Proteoglycan complex
Micro- CYTOPLASM
filaments
• Functions of the ECM
– Support
– Adhesion
– Movement
– Regulation
Cell Junctions
• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems
often adhere, interact, and communicate through
direct physical contact
• Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact
• There are several types of intercellular junctions
– Plasmodesmata
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions
Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells
• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant
cell walls
• Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes
(and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from
cell to cell
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6.31
Cell walls
Interior
of cell
Interior
of cell
0.5 m Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and
Gap Junctions in Animal Cells
• At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are
pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular
fluid
• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
• Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide
cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
Animation: Tight Junctions
Animation: Desmosomes
Animation: Gap Junctions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6.32
Tight junctions prevent
fluid from moving Tight junction
across a layer of cells
TEM
0.5 m
Tight junction
Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome
TEM
1 m
Gap
junction
Ions or small
molecules
Space
between cells
TEM
Extracellular
Plasma membranes matrix
of adjacent cells 0.1 m
Figure 6.32a
Tight junctions prevent
fluid from moving
across a layer of cells
Tight junction
Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome
Gap
junction
Ions or small
Plasma membranes molecules
of adjacent cells
Space
between cells
Extracellular
matrix
The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than
the Sum of Its Parts
• Cells rely on the integration of structures and
organelles in order to function
• For example, a macrophage’s ability to destroy
bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating
components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes,
and plasma membrane
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6.33
5 m
Figure 6.UN01
Nucleus
(ER)
(Nuclear
envelope)
Figure 6.UN01a
Nucleus
(ER)
Figure 6.UN01b
(Nuclear
envelope)
Figure 6.UN01c
The end
