Many + Parts This name hints at

how polymers are

made

Latin: Plasticus, that This name honors

which can be molded plastics useful property
of being easily molded
The word, polymer, implies that polymers are
constructed from pieces (monomers) that can be
easily connected into long chains (polymer). When
you look at the above shapes, your mind should see
that they could easily fit together.
 What is a polymer?

Polymers are large molecules made up of

long chains of monomers bonded together.

Monomers (from mono meaning “one” and

meros meaning “unit”) are the small
molecules used to synthesize the polymer
chain, like a strand of paper clips.
All plastics are polymers formed
from chains of smaller molecules
 Polymers can be formed from the same type of
monomer or from a combination of monomers

A representation of a monomer

A representation of a polymer made of one type of monomer

representation of a polymer made of two different types of monomers

Polymers can be classified based
on the structures of their
monomers
Homopolymers consist of chains in which every monomer is
identical

Copolymers (or heteropolymers) are composed of chains

with two or more different types of monomers
Polymers can also be classified based
on the type of reaction that is used to
create them
Polymers are called addition polymers
when each monomer is added
sequentially to the growing chain
without any losses
Condensation polymers are formed
when each monomer combines with the
loss of a small molecule (such as water)
A polymer made
form just one
monomer is
polyethylene. It
is the most
common plastic
you see.
It is used for
bottles, buckets,
jugs, containers,
toys, even
synthetic
lumber, and
many other
things.
Before we show how polyethylene is made from its monomer,
ethylene, let’s review the structure of some similar compounds
to ethylene.
 Ethylene has two carbons; plus, instead of the two carbons
sharing just one electron each, they share two electrons each.
High temperature or UV light can cause two of these shared
(paired) electrons to become unshared (unpaired).

H H TheseHunpaired electrons
H are eager to pair
- - up with another electron. If this ethylene
C C molecule
C bumps another
C ethylene
molecule, the unpaired electrons will cause
- - the one it bumped into to lend one of its
H H
H
inner electrons. H

- - - - - -

- - - - - -
 Here’s another way to see the chain
reaction. These are the carbon atoms
with their double-bond (2 shared
electrons each). The hydrogen atoms
are not shown. A collision breaks the
first bond.

Once the first double bond is broken, a chain reaction will

occur. In about a second an entire chamber of compressed
ethylene gas turns into the polymer, polyethylene.
 There are two types of
polyethylene polymers
(plastics). One is when
the polyethylene exists as
long straight chains. The
picture here shows the
chains of one carbon with
two hydrogen atoms
repeating. The chain can
be as long as 20,000
carbons to 35,000
carbons. This is called
high density polyethylene
(HDPE).
 When the chains get up to
500,000 carbons long, they
are tough enough for
synthetic ice, replacement
joints, and bullet-proof vests.
Think about it. You start
with ethylene gas molecules
that can't stop a feather from
passing through them. But
after the double-bond of one
ethylene molecule breaks, it
causes a chain reaction that
connects thousands to it. In
less than a second, these
long straight chains of
carbon and hydrogen are
strong enough to stop a
bullet or play ice hockey on.
Isn't chemistry wonderful.
We've mentioned high density polyethylene (HDPE); you
probably were thinking, there must be low density polyethylene
(LDPE). You are correct. It is made by causing the long chains
of ethylene to branch. That way they cannot lie next each
other, which reduces the density and strength of the
polyethylene. This makes the plastic lighter and more flexible.
Low density polyethylene is used to make
plastic bags, plastic wrap, and squeeze bottles,
plus many other things.
Another polymer, which is almost the same as
polyethylene, is PolyVinyl Chloride or PVC.
The difference is that every other hydrogen is
replaced with a chlorine atom (green sphere).
 © 2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Polystyrene – an addition homopolymer

polystyrene sheets polystyrene rods

 © 2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Polystyrene Foam
If you introduce gas during the polymerization
process you can turn the brittle plastic into
lightweight styrofoam

Cups, plates and containers made from styrofoam.

Cotton fiber is mostly cellulose, and
cellulose is made of chains of the sugar,
glucose linked together a certain way.
 © 2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Cellulose is a natural condensation polymer

Cellulose is formed by condensing glucose molecules and

releasing molecules of water

Cellulose is the
major component
of wood, paper and
cotton
Requirement for fibre forming polymers
● Hydrophilic

● Chemically resistant

● Linear

● Long

● Capable of being oriented

● Able to form high melting point polymer systems

The cotton polymer is a linear, cellulose polymer.

The repeating unit of the cotton polymer is cellobiose

which consists of two glucose units.

The cotton polymer consists of about 5000 cellobiose units,

that is its degree of polymerization is about 5000.

It is very long, linear polymer, about 5000nm in length and

about .8nm thick.
The most chemical groupings in the cotton polymer are the
hydroxyl groups or –OH groups. These are also present as
methylol groups. Their polarity gives rise to hydrogen bonds
between the –OH groups of adjacent cotton polymer.

This fibre are weakened and destroyed by acids because

acidic conditions hydrolyse the cotton polymer at the
glucoside oxygen atom, which links two glucose units to form
the cellobiose unit. But it is unaffected by alkali.
 WOOl

Textile fibres composed of protein are the

natural protein fibres. The most commonly used
protein fibre is wool and silk.
 What is Protein?

• Take away the water and about 75 percent of

body weight is protein
• Muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other
body part or tissue. (25% of muscle)
• Enzymes that power many chemical reactions and
the hemoglobin that carries oxygen
• At least 10,000 different proteins make the body
what it is.
 What is Protein?

• Twenty or so basic building blocks, called amino

acids, provide the raw material for all proteins.
Following genetic instructions, the body strings
together amino acids.
• Some genes call for short chains, others are
blueprints for long chains that fold, origami-like,
into intricate, three-dimensional structures.
 What is Protein?

• Because the body doesn't store amino acids, as it

does fats or carbohydrates, it needs a daily supply of
amino acids to make new protein.
• It does not need a supply of dietary amino acids to
make ALL the protein the body synthesizes in a day
• Protein the body no longer requires is broken down
to its component amino acids and they may be
used to synthesis another body protein
 Amino Acids
Side group
Side group
H O differences
is how the twenty
N C C amino acids are
different .
H OH
H
Amine Acid
Group Group
 WOOL
• The wool polymer is linear, with some short
side groups and it normally has a helical
configuration. The repeating unit of the wool
polymer is the amino acid. Amino acids linked
with each other by peptide bond ( -CO-NH-) to
form the wool polymer. The wool polymer is
composed of twenty amino acids but only a
general formula is given for wool polymer. In
general arginine, cystine and glutamic acid
constitute one third of the wool polymer.
 WOOL
• A wool polymer is 140nm long and about 1nm
thick. In its normal relaxed state, the wool
polymer has a helical configuration known as
alpha-keratine. Stretching the wool fibre will
tend to also stretch, straighten or unfold its
polymers. The unfolded configuration of the
wool polymer is called beta-keratine. A beta-
keratine wool polymer always attempt to
return to its relaxed alpha-keratine
configuration.
 WOOL
• Wool is more resistant to acids than to alkalis.
Acids hydrolyse the peptide groups but leave
the disulphide bond, which cross-linked the
wool polymers intact. Although the polymer
system of wool is weakened in acidic
solutions, but the fibre does not dissolve.
Wool dissolves readily in alkaline solution.
Alkalis hydrolyse disulphide bond, hydrogen
bond and salt linkages of wool and cause the
wool polymers to separate from each other.
SILK
 SILK
•
• Silk is composed of sixteen different amino acids
compared with the twenty amno acids of the wool
polymer. Three of these sixteen amino acids, namely
alanine, glycene and serine, make up about fourth fifth
of the silk polymers composition.
• The silk polymers are not composed of amino acid
containing sulphur. Hence, the polymer system of silk
does not contain any disulphide bonds.
• The silk polymer occurs only in the beta-configuration.
 The Synthetic Fibres

Textile fibres composed of

synthesized polymer not found in
nature are the manmade, synthetic
polymer fibres: acrylic, chlorofibres,
elastomeric, modacrylic, nylon,
polyester, polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyvinyl alcohol etc.
 Acrylic Fibre

• The acrylic fibres are manmade, synthetic

polymer based, polyacrylonitrile filaments or
staple fibres. They are divided into two types:
• Polyacrylonitrile fibres, generally referred to
as acrylic fibres.
• Modified Polyacrylonitrile fibres, generally
referred to as modacrylic fibres.
Acrylic Fibre
 Acrylic Fibre
• acrylic polymer is one of the longest man-
made fibre polymers. The main component of
the acrylic polymer is the acrylonitrile
monomer. It is a linear polymer. The depends
for its cohesion on weak vander waals forces,
the length of its polymer is essential for the
formation of a maximum number of these
weak forces of attraction.
 Acrylic Fibre
• The acrylic polymer is a copolymer composed
of two or more monomers. By definition, it is
necessary for the acrylic fibres to be
composed of at least 85 percent by weight of
acrylonitrile units. On the other hand, the
modacrylic fibres must composed of at least
35 percent but not more than 85 percent by
weight of acrylonitrile units.
 Acrylic Fibre
• The remaining percentage of their respective
polymer system, also referred to as the
comonomer, may be one, or combination of
the following: acrylamide, methacrylate, vinyl
acetate, vinyl chloride, sodium vinylbenzene
sulphonate etc. This comonomers are
introduced due to attract dye molecules.
The acrylic fibres are resistant to acids and bases because
their polymers do not contain any chemical groups to attract them.
However some surface alkaline hydrolysis can occur.
Nylon is used in clothes,
shoes, jackets, belts, and
accessories. It’s not
surprising a magazine is
named after this polymer.
Where did nylon get its
name?

Nylon was discovered in 1935. The name nylon is

derived from two cities where it was discovered namely
New York (NY) and London (LON).
 Two ingredients are mixed and a solid begins to form
at the junction between the two layers of liquid.

Hot nylon spaghetti can be extracted.

We say certain polymers are man-made, but the truth is they

make themselves. Humans only have to get the ingredients
near each other. The chemicals will assemble themselves.
The students are handling the nylon string that was produced.
Notice there’s some kind of odor that is being noticed.
 Tetramethylene
dicarboxylic acid Hexamethylene diamine
(adipic acid)

methylene x 6 (hexa) amine x 2 (di)

Nylon is actually a “copolymer” because is it made

from two monomers. When these two monomers
are in the same beaker, they combine and give off
a molecule of water. This is called a “dehydration”
reaction because we are taking away (de) water
(hydra). (regarding odor: amines smell like fish or
worse. Adipic acid is odorless )
 Nylon
• The polymer system of nylon is estimated to
be about 65-85% crystalline. This gives nylon a
very crystalline, very well aligned or oriented
polymer system with a inter-polymer distance
on average about 3nm. This very short inter-
polymer distance enables nylon polymer to
form an optimum number of strong, uniform
hydrogen bonds.
 The conditions under which a
polymer is formed can change its
properties, even if the molecular
formula is the same
 © 2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Polymeric strands of high-density polyethylene with regions of crystallinity.

 Nylon
• Nylon is less resistant to acids than it is to alkalis. The
amide groups in the nylon polymers are readily
hydrolysed under acidic conditions. Exposure to
slightly acidic atmosphere i.e. in polluted
atmosphere, will cause some polymer hydrolysis on
the surface of filaments or staple fibres. This changes
their light reflection properties with the result that
white nylon textile materials will assume yellow
colour, while coloured nylon becomes duller.
 Polyester is a
another
copolymer. It
is made from
equal amounts
of two different
monomers.
Polyester is
used to make
bottles and
fabrics.
Polyester is made from the two monomers, terephthalic acid (note: “ph” is
silent) and ethylene glycol (car antifreeze). This makes a popular plastic
called PETE, which is short for Polyethylene Terephthalate. The synthesis
is also a dehydration reaction because water is given off.

PETE

O
H O C

ESTER groups formed Hence the name POLYESTER

There was even a movie
called "Polyester" which
showcased a carefree
lifestyle. Polyester fabrics
were "drip-dry" also called
“wash and wear”, meaning
they were quick to wash,
quick to dry, and no
ironing needed. This freed
you to have fun rather
than doing household
chores.