University Institute of Engineering

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & ARCHITECTURE

(23CST-204/23ITT-204)

ER. SHIKHA ATWAL

E11186

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

BE-CSE
 INPUT-OUTPUT ORGANIZATION

The input-output subsystem of a computer, referred to as I/O, provides an

efficient mode of communication between the central system and the outside
environment.
Programs and data must be entered into computer memory for processing and
results obtained from computations must be recorded or displayed for the user.
 Peripheral Devices

Input or output devices attached to the computer are also called peripherals.
 The display terminal can operate in a single-character mode where all
characters entered on the screen through the keyboard are
transmitted to the computer simultaneously. In the block mode, the
edited text is first stored in a local memory inside the terminal. The text is
transferred to the computer as a block of data.
 Printers provide a permanent record on paper of computer output data.
 Magnetic tapes are used mostly for storing files of data.
 Magnetic disks have high-speed rotational surfaces coated with magnetic
material.
 Input-Output Interface

Input-output interface provides a method for transferring information between

internal storage and external I/O devices. Peripherals connected to a computer
need special communication links for interfacing them with the central
processing unit. The major differences are:

1.Peripherals are electromechanical and electromagnetic devices and

their manner of operation is different from the operation of the CPU and
memory, which are electronic devices. Therefore, a conversion of signal
values may be required.
2.The data transfer rate of peripherals is usually slower than the transfer rate
of the CPU, and consequently, a synchronization mechanism may be
needed.
 3. Data codes and formats in peripherals differ from the word format in
the CPU and memory.
4. The operating modes of peripherals are different from each other and each
must be controlled so as not to disturb the operation of other peripherals
connected to the CPU.

A typical communication link between the processor and several peripherals is

shown in the figure below.
 v

Connection of I/O bus to input-output devices

The I/O bus consists of data lines, address lines, and control lines. The magnetic
disk, printer, and terminal are employed in practically any general-purpose
computer. The interface selected responds to the function code and proceeds to
execute it.
The function code is referred to as an I/O command and is in essence an
instruction that is executed in the interface and its attached peripheral unit.

There are three ways that computer buses can be used to communicate with
memory and I/O:

1.Use two separate buses, one for memory and the other for I/O.
2.Use one common bus for both memory and I/O but have separate control lines
for each.
3.Use one common bus for memory and I/O with common control lines.
 Asynchronous Data Transfer

The internal operations in a digital system are synchronized by means of clock

pulses supplied by a common pulse generator. If the registers in the interface
share a common clock with the CPU registers, the transfer between the two units
is said to be synchronous.
In most cases, the internal timing in each unit is independent from the other in
that each uses its own private clock for internal registers. In that case, the
two units are said to be asynchronous to each other. This approach is
widely used in most computer systems. Asynchronous data transfer between
two independent units requires that control signals be transmitted between
the communicating units to indicate the time at which data is being
transmitted.
There are two ways of achieving this mentioned below:

 Strobe Control: pulse supplied by one of the units to indicate to the other
unit when the transfer has to occur.

 Handshaking: The unit receiving the data item responds with another control
signal to acknowledge receipt of the data.
1. Strobe Control Method
The Strobe Control method of asynchronous data transfer employs a single
control line to time each transfer. This control line is also known as a strobe, and
it may be achieved either by source or destination, depending on which initiate
the transfer.
 Source initiated strobe: In the below block diagram, you can see that strobe
is initiated by source, and as shown in the timing diagram, the source unit first
places the data on the data bus.
After a brief delay to ensure that the data resolve to a stable value, the source
activates a strobe pulse.
The information on the data bus and strobe control signal remains in the active
state for a sufficient time to allow the destination unit to receive the data.
The destination unit uses a falling edge of strobe control to transfer the contents
of a data bus to one of its internal registers.
The source removes the data from the data bus after it disables its strobe pulse.
Thus, new valid data will be available only after the strobe is
enabled again.
In this case, the strobe may be a memory-write control signal from the
CPU to a memory unit. The CPU places the word on the data bus and informs
the memory unit, which is the destination.
 Destination initiated strobe: In the below block diagram, you see that
the strobe initiated by destination, and in the timing diagram, the destination
unit first activates the strobe pulse, informing the source to provide the data.
 The source unit responds by placing the requested binary information on the
data bus. The data must be valid and remain on the bus long enough for the
destination unit to accept it.
 The falling edge of the strobe pulse can use again to trigger a destination
register. The destination unit then disables the strobe. Finally, and source
removes the data from the data bus after a determined time
interval. In this case, the strobe may be a memory read control from the CPU
to a memory unit. The CPU initiates the read operation to inform the memory,
which is a source unit, to place the selected word into the data bus.
2. Handshaking Method

The strobe method has the disadvantage that the source unit that initiates the
transfer has no way of knowing whether the destination has received the
data that was placed in the bus. Similarly, a destination unit that initiates
the transfer has no way of knowing whether the source unit has placed data on
the bus.
So, this problem is solved by the handshaking method. The handshaking
method introduces a second control signal line that replays the unit that
initiates the transfer.
In this method, one control line is in the same direction as the data flow in the
bus from the source to the destination. The source unit uses it to inform the
destination unit whether there are valid data in the bus.

The other control line is in the other direction from the destination to the
source. This is because the destination unit uses it to inform the source
whether it can accept data. And in it also, the sequence of control depends on
the unit that initiates the transfer.
So, it means the sequence of control depends on whether the transfer is
initiated by source and destination.
 Source initiated handshaking: In the below block diagram, you can see
that two handshaking lines are "data valid", which is generated by the
source unit, and "data accepted", generated by the destination unit.
The timing diagram shows the timing relationship of the exchange of signals
between the two units.
The source initiates a transfer by placing data on the bus and enabling its data
valid signal.
The destination unit then activates the data accepted signal after it accepts the
data from the bus.
The source unit then disables its valid data signal, which invalidates the data on
the bus.
After this, the destination unit disables its data accepted signal, and the system
goes into its initial state.
The source unit does not send the next data item until after the destination unit
shows readiness to accept new data by disabling the data accepted signal.
This sequence of events described in its sequence diagram, which shows the
above sequence in which the system is present at any given time.
 Destination initiated handshaking:

In the below block diagram, you see that the

two handshaking lines are "data valid",
generated by the source unit, and "ready for
data" generated by the destination
unit. Note that the name of signal data
accepted generated by the destination unit
has been changed to ready for data to reflect
its new meaning.
The destination transfer is initiated, so the source unit does not place data on
the data bus until it receives a ready data signal from the destination
unit. After that, the handshaking process is the same as that of the source
initiated. The sequence of events is shown in its sequence diagram, and the
timing relationship between signals is shown in its timing diagram. Therefore,
the sequence of events in both cases would be identical.
 Advantages of Asynchronous Data Transfer

Asynchronous Data Transfer in computer organization has the following

advantages, such as:

oIt is more flexible, and devices can exchange information at their own pace. In
addition, individual data characters can complete themselves so that even
if one packet is corrupted, its predecessors and successors will not be
affected.
oIt does not require complex processes by the receiving device. Furthermore, it
means that inconsistency in data transfer does not result in a big crisis since
the device can keep up with the data stream. It also makes asynchronous
transfers suitable for applications where character data is generated
irregularly.
Disadvantages of Asynchronous Data Transfer
There are also some disadvantages of using asynchronous data for transfer
in computer organization, such as:

o The success of these transmissions depends on the start bits and their
recognition. Unfortunately, this can be easily susceptible to line interference,
causing these bits to be corrupted or distorted.
o A large portion of the transmitted data is used to control and identify header
bits and thus carries no helpful information related to the transmitted
data. This invariably means that more data packets need to be sent.
References

Reference Books:
 J.P. Hayes, “Computer Architecture and
Organization”, Third Edition.
 Mano, M., “Computer System Architecture”,
Third Edition, Prentice Hall.
 Stallings, W., “Computer Organization and Architecture”, Eighth
Edition, Pearson Education.

Text Books:
 Carpinelli J.D,” Computer systems organization &Architecture”, Fourth
Edition, Addison Wesley.
 Patterson and Hennessy, “Computer Architecture”, Fifth Edition Morgaon
Kauffman.
Other References

 https://tutorialspoint.dev/computer-science/computer-organization-and-
architecture/io-interface-interrupt-dma-mode
 Asynchronous Data Transfer in Computer Organization - Javatpoint
 https://www.studytonight.com/computer-architecture/input-output-proc
essor
 Handshaking in Computer architecture (includehelp.com)