ARCH111 :STRENGTH OF MATERIALS I

STEEL
METALS

Metals

Ferrous Non-Ferrous

Steel and Cast Irons Al, Cu, Mg etc.

FERROUS MATERIALS

Ferrous

Steels Cast iron

Low Alloy High Alloy

Stainless Tool steel

steel
INTRODUCTION TO STEEL
 Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon with a small percentage of other metals
such as nickel, chromium, aluminium, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten etc.
 Steel is a hard ductile and malleable solid and is probably the most solid material
after plastic and iron.
 If we draw a comparison between iron and steel, we find steel in many ways even
better than iron. Steel may not be as strong as iron is but it far more resistant and
does not corrode and does not get rusted like iron does.
 There are many different types of steel classified on the basis of the type of metal used
and the percentage content of the metal in the particular type of steel.
Introduction
• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with a
small percentage of other metals.
• It is one of the most common materials in the
world.
• It is a major component in buildings,
infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles,
machines, appliances, and weapons.
• Types of Steels -
Carbon Steels
Alloy Steels
Stainless
Steels Tool
 Physical Properties
• The properties that need to be considered by
designers when specifying steel construction
products are:
• Strength
• Toughness
• Ductility
• Weldability
• Durability
• Low weight
Mehcanical Properties
• The mechanical properties of a material
are those properties that involve a
reaction to an applied
load. The mechanical properties of metals
determine the range of usefulness of a
material and establish the service life that
can be expected.
• Mechanical properties are also used to help
classify and identify material.
• The mechanical properties of a material are
not constant and often change as a
function of temperature, rate of loading,
and other conditions.
Notch-toughness
• There is always a possibility of microscopic
cracks in a material or the material may
develop such cracks as a result of several
cycles of loading. Such cracks may grow
rapidly without detection and lead to sudden
collapse of the structure. To ensure that this
does not happen, materials in which the
cracks grow slowly are preferred. Such steels
are known as notch-tough steels and the
amount of energy they absorb is measured by
impacting a notched specimen with a heavy
pendulum as in Izod or Charpy tests.
• If it is a reinforced concrete (RC) frame
building, then the steel would be in the form
of steel bars ranging in diameter from 8mm
to 50mm or mesh depending on the
calculations made by architects and in most
cases, structural engineers.
• These bars would be tied together with mild
or stainless steel tying wire to form cages
which would then be covered with concrete
• Steel is also used in the foundations of
buildings. This can be from small beams in
houses or in the form of concrete piles which
are basicly long holes drilled deep into the
ground and filled with a steel cage and
concrete.
• Other than this, the steel could be in the form
of RSJs rolled steel joists or steel girders.
This is used to build a frame from which floor
 Ferrous Materials - Steels
• Steels - alloys of iron-carbon.
May contain other alloying Steels
elements.
• Several grades are Low High
available.
alloy
• Low Alloy (<10 wt%) alloy
Low
–Low Carbon (<0.25 wt Carbon Stainless
% C)
–Medium Carbon (0.25 to 0.60 Medium
Too
wt%) Carbon l
–High Carbon (0.6 to 1.4 wt%) High
• High Alloy Carbon

–Stainless Steel (> 11 wt% Cr)

–Tool Steel
 TYPES OF STEEL
Below given are some commonly used types of steel:

 High-Carbon Steel
Carbon steel is simply composed of iron and carbon with a more percentage of carbon
in it than the iron. It is probably the most commonly
 Mild Steel
It is composed of iron and carbon but it has a very low content of carbon.
 Medium Carbon Steel
The medium carbon steels has a normal content of carbon that means that they are not
as hard as the high carbon and neither are they as strong the Mild carbon steel.
 Stainless Steel
Stain less steel is the most resistant and commonly used steel of all the types. It apart
from carbon contains 11% chromium and some amount of nickel. It is probably the
most resistant steel of all the types. The stainless steel in particular is resistant to any
sort of external attack. Even a scratch cannot stay on the surface of stainless steel.
 High Speed Steel
High speed steel is an alloy of steel which may consists of either of the
following metals: tungsten, cobalt, molybdenum or chromium.
High speed steel is probably the toughest of all the types. The term high speed
is given to it due to the fact that it has the ability to cut the metals.
 Cobalt Steel
Cobalt is much like the high speed steel with an excess of cobalt present in it.
 Nickel Chromium Steel
Nickel chromium steel is has is a special type of steel which apart from being
strong is also shock resistant
 Aluminium Steel
Aluminium steel is smooth steel with a high content of aluminium. Because
of its
strong and smooth surface it is used in the making of furniture.
 Chromium Steel
Chromium steels have a high content of chromium and are resistant to corrosion.
They are very strong, tensile and elastic in nature.
LOW CARBON STEEL

Plain carbon steels - very low content of alloying elements

and small amounts of Mn.
Most abundant grade of steel is low carbon steel - greatest
quantity produced; least expensive.
Not responsive to heat treatment; cold working needed to
improve the strength.
Good Weldability and machinability
High Strength, Low Alloy (HSLA) steels - alloying elements
(like Cu, V, Ni and Mo) up to 10 wt %; have higher strengths
and may be heat treated.
Properties and typical application of some low carbon and low
alloys steels
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

Carbon content in the range of 0.3 – 0.6%.

Can be heat treated - austenitizing, quenching and then
tempering.
Most often used in tempered condition – tempered
martensite
Medium carbon steels have low hardenability
Addition of Cr, Ni, Mo improves the heat treating
capacity
Heat treated alloys are stronger but have lower ductility
Typical applications – Railway wheels and tracks, gears,
crankshafts.
 HIGH CARBON STEEL

High carbon steels – Carbon content 0.6 – 1.4%

High C content provides high hardness and strength.

Hardest and least ductile.

Used in hardened and tempered condition

Strong carbide formers like Cr, V, W are added as alloying

elements to from carbides of these metals.

Used as tool and die steels owing to the high hardness and

wear resistance property

COMPOSITIONS AND APPLICATION OF SOME TOOL STEELS
EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS ON STEEL

•Manganese – strength and hardness; decreases ductility and

weldability; effects hardenability of steel.
•Phosphorus – increases strength and hardness and decreases
ductility and notch impact toughness of steel.
•Sulfur decreases ductility and notch impact toughness
Weldability decreases. Found in the form of sulfide inclusions.
•Silicon – one of the principal deoxidizers used in steel
making. In low-carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to
surface quality.
•Copper – detrimental to hot-working steels; beneficial to
corrosion resistance (Cu>0.20%)
•Nickel - ferrite strengthener; increases the hardenability and
impact strength of steels.
•Molybdenum increases the hardenability; enhances the creep
resistance of low-alloy steels
STAINLESS STEEL

•Stainless steels - A group of steels that contain at least 11% Cr.

Exhibits extraordinary corrosion resistance due to formation of
a very thin layer of Cr2O3 on the surface.
 Categories of stainless steels:
 Ferritic Stainless Steels – Composed of  ferrite (BCC)
 Martensitic Stainless Steels – Can be heat treated.
 Austenitic Stainless Steels – Austenite () phase field is extended
to room temperature. Most corrosion resistant.
 Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels – Ultra high-
strength due to precipitation hardening.
Duplex Stainless Steels – Ferrite + Austenite
APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEELS
Manufacturing of
Steel
Process involved in manufacturing

• Carbonization of COKE
• Blast furnace
• Basic Oxygen Steel making [BOS]
• Electric arc method
 Carbonization of COKE

• Well graded coal is selected

• Heated or carbonized to COKE
• Heated coal is cooled
• And Proper COKE are fed into the Blast
furnace for the farther process.
WHAT IS A BLAST FURNACE?
•The purpose of a blast
furnace is to reduce and
convert iron oxides into
liquid iron called "hot
metal".
•The blast furnace is a huge, steel
stack lined with refractory brick.
•Iron ore, coke and limestone
are put into the top, and
preheated air is blown into the
bottom.
 Why does Iron have to be extracted in a Blast
Furnace???

•Iron can be extracted by the blast furnace because it

can be displaced by carbon.
•This is more efficient method than electrolysis because
it is more cost effective
•Here the continuous process can be achieved, i.e. Till
the deterioration of refractory bricks occurs (nearly
about 10 years)
 The Method

Three substances are needed to enable to extraction of iron from

its ore. The combined mixture is called the charge:
Iron ore, haematite - often contains sand with iron oxide, Fe2O3.
Limestone (calcium carbonate).
Coke - mainly carbon
The charge is placed a giant chimney called a Blast furnace. The
blast furnace is around 30 metres high and lined with fireproof
bricks. Hot air is blasted through the bottom.
Several reactions take place before the iron is
finally produced...
•Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon
dioxide:

C(s) + O 2(g)  CO2(g)

•The limestone breaks down to form carbon dioxide:

CaCO3(s)  CO2 (g) + CaO(s)

•Carbon dioxide produced in 1 + 2 react with more

coke to produce carbon monoxide:

CO2(g) + C(s)  2CO(g)

• The carbon monoxide reduces the
iron in the ore to give molten iron:
3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s)  2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
• The limestone from 2, reacts with the
sand to form slag (calcium silicate):

CaO(s) + SiO(s)  CaSiO3(l )

•Both the slag and iron are drained from the
bottom of the furnace.

•The slag is mainly used to build roads.

•The iron whilst molten is poured into moulds

and left to solidify - this is called cast iron and
is used to make railings and storage tanks.

•The rest of the iron is used to make steel.

 ' +--

Converter fumesto cleaning plant

- - - Waler-cooled fume collecting hood

Refractory linin11-- -

,..

Pouring position
converter

M Steel shell
o
--------- converter
• Hot metal from the blast furnace and steel scrap are the principal
materials used in Basic Oxygen Steel making (BOS)
• Modern furnaces, or ‘converters’ will take a charge of up to 350 tonnes
and convert it into steel in around 15 minutes.
• A water-cooled oxygen lance is lowered into the converter and high-
purity
oxygen is blown on to the metal at very high pressure.
• The oxygen combines with carbon and other unwanted elements,
eliminating them from the molten charge.
• These oxidation reactions produce heat, and the temperature of the metal
is controlled by the quantity of added scrap.
• The carbon leaves the converter as a gas, carbon monoxide, which can,
after cleaning, be collected for re-use as a fuel.
• lime is added as a flux to help carry off the other oxidized impurities as a
floating layer of slag .
• the converter is tilted and the steel is tapped into a ladle. Typically, the
carbon content of the steel at the end of refining is about 0.04%.
• uses only cold scrap metal.
• employed in making more widely used steels, including alloy and
stainless grades as well as some special carbon and low-alloy steels.
• Modern electric arc furnaces can make up to 150 tonnes of steel in a
single melt.
• The electric arc furnace consists of a circular bath with a movable
roof, through which three graphite electrodes can be raised or
lowered.
• At the start of the process, the electrodes are withdrawn and the roof
swung clear. The steel scrap is then charged into the furnace from a
large steel basket lowered from an overhead travelling crane.
• When charging is complete, the roof is swung back into position and
the electrodes lowered into the furnace.
• A powerful electric current is passed through the charge, an arc is
created, and the heat generated melts the scrap.
• Lime and fluorspar are added as fluxes and oxygen is blown into the
melt. As a result, impurities in the metal combine to form a
liquid slag.
How is Steel made-I
How is Steel made-II
How is Steel made-III
 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

 Steels can exhibit a wide variety of properties depending on

composition as well as the phases and micro-constituents
present, which can be achieved by heat treatment.

 Various heat treatments processes used for steels are as follows:

 Annealing

 Normalizing

 Tempering

 Carburizing
CARBURIZING

 Surface hardening method for low carbon steel

 Temperature range is 900-930 ⁰ C.

 Carbon diffused by heating above transformation temperature .

 Carbon layer is enriched 0.7-0.9 %.

 C is absorbed in solid solution in austenite.

 Carburizing is done by following methods:

1. Pack carburizing.
2. Liquid carburizing.
3. Gas carburizing.
4. Vacuum carburizing.
5. Plasma carburizing.
PACK CARBURIZING
 Oldest method in which we used 80 % granular coal & 20 % Barium carbonate as

energizer in heat resistant boxes at 930 ⁰ C.

 Time depends upon case depth required.
 Depth of penetration is dependent on diffusion & can be
related to time by this equation:
Case depth = k√ t
 Time varies 6-8 hours for case
depth of 1-2 mm.
ADVANTAGES

Speed of erection.

Quality of construction..

Ease of repair.

Adaptation of prefabrication.

Repetitive use.

Expanding existing structures.

LIMITATIONS OF STEEL

 Corrosion

 Expensive fireproof treatment

 Subjected to bulking

 Can be more expensive than other materials

Thermal properties and Fire resistance

 Properties depend largely on alloying elements.

 Carbon is added to iron to make it stronger. Melting
point change depending on the amount of carbon
present by mass. But once carbon content in ‘steel’
exceeds 2.1% by mass it is no longer steel and is
called Cast Iron.
 Steel looses strength when heated sufficiently.
There is a critical temperature after which it
cannot safely support the load.
ARCHITECTURAL USES OF
STEEL
 :
Metal Buildings: Metal buildings are non-combustible and can be built out of
a combination of rigid and braced steel frames comprised of both hot- and cold-
formed steel shapes, plates, sheets, roof decks and panels. Each part can be
custom-designed and manufactured as per needs and specifications.

Steel Roofs: In some parts of the world, metal roofs now account for nearly
50% of all low-rise commercial, industrial and institutional buildings erected
during the last several years. Today, in fact, metal roofs, if properly constructed,
can lower cooling loads and increase energy savings, hence they are being
chosen in many types of commercial constructions. They are the best for
electrical generation and are long lasting.

Steel Frames: They can offer durable and sustainable steel solutions with
cold-formed steel framing, wide flange structural shapes and joists, and metal
building systems.

Structural Steel: Use of steel for structural beams and columns not only adds
durability, but is also cost-effective. Architects and designers enjoy the
flexibility, high strength, ease of design, sustainability, and aesthetic appeal that
it offers.
 Classic examples of
buildings with steel as
major construction
material.
The U.S. Steel Tower is the tallest skyscraper in
Pittsburg and the 37thtallest in United States. The 64-
story tower was finished in 1970 and is 256 meters
high.
The Steel Tower truly stands apart, due to its unique
triangular shape with intended corners.
The main frame is made out of steel, also displayed
on the exterior of the building throughout huge Corten
steel columns that resist the corrosive effects of all the
weather conditions.
The tower has over 40,000 metric tons of structural
steel and 214,000 square meters of leasable office
space. On clear sunny days, the Steel Tower is visible
from as far as 80 km.
Abramovich and Frittz were the chief were the U.S STEEL
architects.
TOWER
New York City’s Seagram Buildings
was built in 1957 and is a fine example
of modern and functionalist
architecture. The steel frame used for
the construction of Seagram Building
needed to be covered in concrete, to
comply the federal regulations, although
the architects would have preferred to
be visible. Non-structural glass walls
with three-position windows blinds were
hung from the frame.
Ludwig Mies van de Rohe, was the
main architect of this steel wonder. At
the moment of its completion, this 38
storey building was one of the most
expensive sky scrapers ever built.

SEAGRAM BUILDING
 EIFFEL TOWER
The Tower derives its structure from the pylon supports for the
earlier bridges but at a much greater scale.
The four pylons curve up from their separate bases in three stages to
meet at the top at the point where they are about to become straight.
At each stage the pylons are joined horizontally to provide
intermediate platforms. Decorative arches which are not structurally
required are used at the first stage to temper the heavy horizontality of
the girders that connect the four pylons together
The tapering structural form of the Eiffel tower recognizes and
reflects the importance that the horizontal loadings from the wind
have on tall buildings.

EMPIRE STATE BUILDING

Often referred to as one of the seven wonders of modern

architecture, this amazing tower continues to be the tallest
skyscraper in NYC and the third tallest in USA.
The 80 years old structure is currently undergoing a massive
$550 million renovation that will transform it in one of the most
eco-friendly towers in the States. It displays a superb Art Deco
design, with modernistic stainless steel canopies on two of the
entries and glass enclosed bridges on the second-floor level.
This 102-story high skyscraper is probably one of the most
famous landmarks in New York City.
WALT DISNEY CONCERT HALL

 It was opened in October 2003.

 Designed by Frank Gehry,
Apart from its unforgettable exterior look, the Walt
Disney Concert Hall is also praised for its
acoustics, considered to be one of the best in the
whole world
 Most of the buildings’ exterior is designed in
stainless steel with a matte finish.
 The Gateway Arch, also known as The Gate to the
West is a massive monument in the Jefferson
National Expansion Memorial in St. Louis.
 It is 192 meters wide at the base and reaches a
height of 192 meters.
 This is the tallest monument ever made in the
United States
 The Arch symbolizes the extension of United States
towards West and was completed in October 1965.
 900 tons of stainless steel were used for its
construction.
 The arch sways up to 45 cm in conditions of high
wind, but in regular weather the usually sway is
about 5 cm.

GATEWAY ARCH
SEARS TOWER
Built in the year 1971 and has 110 floors which makes
the total height of the building 4423 m.
 Designed by Bruce Graham and Fazlur Rahman
Khan.
Materials used were structural steel, black anodized
aluminum, bronze-tinted glass.
Highest building in the world 1974-1997.It has 103
elevators.
74000 tons of steel were used for the construction.
Entire structure is of steel frame and glass.

THE NEW YORK

TIMES BUILDING
This is the headquarters of the New York Times Company, the publishing
house for The New York Time, The Boston Globe and the International
Herald Tribune. The height from street to roof is 228 meters ,while the
exterior decorative steel wall rises up to 256 meters.
This steel-framed building has ceramic rods mounted on the exterior of
the glass curtain on the west, east and south façade, a great feature for the
increased efficiency of the building.
In fact, this is considered to be a green structure ever since its
construction period, since 95% of the structural steel used here was
recycled
 BEIJING NATION STADIUM
 The stadium has two independent
structures, a red concrete seating bowl and
the outer steel frame around it at a 50ft
distance.
 The structure made of steel is actually the
result of a complex geometry, based on a
main structure of 24 pillars.
SYDNEY HARBOR BRIDGE
 This arch bridge in Sydney carries rail, car, bike
and pedestrian traffic from Sydney Central
Business District to the North Shore and backward
for 1,149 m .The locals nicknamed the bridge
“The Coat Hanger”, due to its main piece of
design, the arch.
 The Sydney Harbour Bridge currently holds two
world records: it is the widest long-span bridge
and the tallest steel arch bridge, being 130 meters
above the water level.
 The amazing arch spans over 503 meters and on
hot days the structure can expand in height with
more than 18 cm
BASILICA OF ST. SABASTIAN
Basilica of St Sebastian is the only all-steel church in Asia .
Completed in 1891, the basilica is constructed in the Gothic style
and is considered to be one of the best examples of this
architectural type in the Philippines.
The pre-fabricated steel sections of the church were connected,
the walls were filled with mixed sand, gravel and cement.
Although the popular culture mentions Gustave Eiffel as one of
the architects of this Basilica, there are no records to prove this.
The only known architect of Basilica of San Sebastian is Genaro
Palacios.
INLAND
STEEL
BUILDING
 The Inland Steel Building in Chicago was one of the most
innovative structures of its time. The project was completed in
1957 and was the first building to be erected on a steel piling.
 It is also the first to have in-built air conditioning and to use
the principle of clear-span construction, which means that the
entire weight of the building is supported by 7 external
columns.
 The Building is covered by a flat stainless steel curtain and
currently is undergoing a major restructuration that will
update all its features.
 It is one of the best examples of a style in architecture that
INTERIORS USING STEEL . .
•CEIL • FURNI
ING TURE
• WA • STAIR
LLS CASES
• INTERIORS
OF KITCHEN

• FLOORING
 Steel used in interiors
 The use of steel is expanding beyond just exterior applications. Steel is making its
way into building interiors and making a bold statement while doing so.
 The majority of steel that we see in structures is mild steel and sometimes medium
carbon steel. These types of steel are also used for light engineering work such as
brackets, table legs, pedestals, furniture frames and wall framing.
 Stainless Steel, another form of steel that doesn’t require a rust inhibitor or
oxidation protection is stainless steel. This is a fantastically versatile material.
Stainless Steel is used very extensively for most modern interior furnishings. It has
a high tensile strength, allowing it to be applied using hollow tubes, reducing
weight and increasing user accessibility.
 Kitchen sinks made of high-grade stainless steel meet demanding design, material,
functionality and production quality requirements. Cutlery and utensils.

Mild steel counter top. Stainless steel mosaic wall tiles Stainless steel switch panels
Sheet steels in some situations may be perforated to create a patterned effect such as a lattice or
they may be textured to form a pattern. An example of this may be tread plate, the steel plate that
we see on stairs on industrial sites. These steels and finishes are very important to the interior
designer as they can be used to effect in unusual situations. For example a fashion store aiming at
the younger market may use tread plate as shelving for the clothing.
Liner panels enhance appearance, giving the interior a more finished look. They also protect the
insulation. They are an extremely low maintenance product, and will keep your interior looking
great for many years to come. They are a fantastic product for any commercial, industrial or
institutional project.
Metal helped achieve the firm’s aesthetic and sustainability goals. Columns and beams are
exposed on the interior to serve as an expression of the building. Steel-stud partition walls in the
tenant spaces are unfinished at the edges to reveal the structure behind the drywall. Many of the
practical touches in the office, such as light-fixture supports, electrical conduits and data-
distribution channels, also use exposed and unfinished galvanized steel.
RIBBED METAL CEILING
Stainless Steel Mosaic Wall Tiles

YStainless
steel tiles
aren’t unusual
in bathrooms
or as back
splashes in
modern
kitchens, but
it’s their use
here to cover
an entire living
room wall
that puts them
Aluminium & S.S. Modular Kitchen

Shiny metal is
much more
than just an
accent in this
modular
kitchen. Calling
to mind
commercial
kitchens in
which every
surface must be
easily
Ultramodern Steel Sofa

Looking like it
was carved from
one solid block of
metal, this
curving sofa in a
shape
reminiscent of a
sea shell is
definitely a bold
way to bring
Kitchen Platforms & walls
Steel Stairs

SINCE STAIRS
ARE OFTEN
LOCATED IN THE
HEART OF A
HOME, THEY
PROVIDE
ANOTHER
OPPORTUNITY
TO STUN WITH
STEEL.
Aluminium Walls
Copper Cladded Wall
SURFACE FINISHES . .

THE MOST COMMON AVAILABLE

FINISHES INCLUDE :

•COLD ROLLED FINISHES

•BRUSHED AND POLISHED

FINISHES

•PATTERNED FINISHES

•SPECIAL DECORATIVE
FINISHES