The cell nucleus

DNA –Position in the cell

DNA double
helix
Nucleus

Chromosomes
 Genes
A gene is a portion of a DNA molecule. A gene
codes for a particular protein.
 DNA
• DNA is often called
the blueprint of life.
• In simple terms,
DNA contains the
instructions for
making proteins
within the cell.
 Why do we study DNA?
DNA
We study DNA for many reasons,
e.g.,
• DNA holds the genetic
information for all organisms
• Genes produce proteins like
enzymes, hormones and
muscle tissue to enable an
organism to function properly
• Organisms need to reproduce
and during this process DNA is
passed from parent to offspring.
 The discovery of DNA:
Rosalind Franklin
• 1952
• Rosalind Franklin
took an x-ray photo of
DNA. Maurice Wilkins
showed the photo to
Watson and Crick.

Maurice
Wilkens
 Rosalin Franklin 1952 - 1958

Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin took the first X-ray photograph
of DNA fibres. The photograph enabled them to determine:
- the position of the DNA molecule’s atoms
- the molecule is long and thin.
 James Watson and Francis Crick
• 1953
• James Watson and
Francis Crick
formulated the double
helix structure of DNA
by making use of a
three-dimensional
model.
 Nobel Prize
• 1962
• Watson, Crick
and Wilkins
receive the
Nobel Prize.
Franklin does
not as she died
in 1958 from
cancer.
 Human Genome Project – not for exam purposes
• 1990
• Project goals were to
• identify all the approximately
20,000-25,000 genes in
human DNA,
• determine the sequences of
the 3 billion chemical base
pairs that make up human
DNA,
• store this information in
databases,
• improve tools for data analysis,
• transfer related technologies to
the private sector, and
• address the ethical, legal, and
social issues (ELSI) that may
arise from the project.
 Human Genome A genome is all an organism’s
hereditary material and is made up of coding and non-coding DNA.

• 2003
• Human
Genome
is
mapped.
 Non-coding DNA
Some sections of DNA are called “non-coding” DNA
(“junk DNA or “Junk genes”).
Non-coding DNA describe sections of an organism's
DNA sequences that do not encode for specific
proteins.
Some non-coding DNA has no known biological
function.
Some non-coding DNA are involve in the regulation of
transcription and translation in protein synthesis.
Some non-coding DNA sequences may have
functions that scientists have not yet discovered.
 Chromosomes and DNA

• Our genes are on

our chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are
made up of a
chemical called
DNA.
 Extra nuclear DNA
DNA is also found outside the
nucleus (extra-nuclear DNA),in
the mitochondria (mitochondrial
DNA) and in the chloroplast
(chloroplastic DNA)
In the nucleus of almost every cell in your
body is the collection of DNA needed to
make you.

DNA in the nucleus is grouped into 23 sets

(pairs) of chromosomes that are called your
"genome."

• In each chromosome, the DNA is grouped into

"genes."
• Your genome contains about 35,000 genes.
 The Shape of the Molecule
• DNA is a very
long polymer.
• The basic shape
is like a twisted
ladder or zipper.
• This is called a
double helix.
 The Double Helix Molecule
• The DNA double
helix has two
strands twisted
together.
• (In the rest of this
unit we will look at
the structure of one
strand.)
 One Strand of DNA
• The backbone of phosphate
the molecule is
alternating
phosphate and deoxyribose
deoxyribose, a
sugar, parts.
• The teeth are
nitrogenous bases
bases.
 One Strand of DNA

nucleotide
• One strand of DNA
is a polymer of
nucleotides.
• One strand of DNA
has many millions
of nucleotides.
Four nitrogenous bases
DNA has four different bases:
• CytosineC
• Thymine T
• Adenine A
• Guanine G
 DNA STRUCTURE
• DNA molecule – double helix (ladder)
• String of repeating molecules units called
nucleotides
• Each nucleotide consist out of
- Deoxyribose sugar
- One phosphate group
- One nitrogen containing base (A,G,C and T)
• Adenine and Guanine – purine bases
• Thymine and Cytosine – pyrimidine bases
 Two Stranded DNA
• Remember, DNA
has two strands that
fit together
something like a
zipper.
• The teeth are the
nitrogenous bases
but why do they
stick together?
 Hydrogen Bonds
• The bases attract

N
each other because
of hydrogen bonds.

C
N
• Hydrogen bonds are

N
weak but there are

C
millions and millions

C
C

N
O
of them in a single
molecule of DNA.

C
• (The bonds between N
C N
cytosine and
guanine are shown C C O
here.)
C N
 Hydrogen Bonds, cont.
O
• When making N C
hydrogen bonds,
cytosine always pairs O C C C
N
up with guanine, N C
• And adenine always N C
pairs up with C N
thymine. C
C C
• (Adenine and thymine N N
are shown here.)
 Important:
• Adenine and Thymine always join
together
A T
• Cytosine and Guanine always join
together
C G
Structure of DNA
Phosphate
T A

G C Deoxyribose
Sugar

Britannica video
Instructions to make your whole body and
keep it working is contained in DNA
• Instructions is called genetic code
• The DNA in your genes tells the cell which
amino acids (protein building blocks) must
combine to make a protein. It also gives
instructions in which sequence the amino
acids must combine.
• Thus, DNA provides the blueprint of all life in
a living body.
 DNA by the numbers
• Each cell has about 2 m
of DNA.
• The average human has
75 trillion cells.
• The average human has
enough DNA to go from
the earth to the sun
more than 400 times.
• DNA has a diameter of The earth is 150 billion m
or 93 million miles from
only 0.000000002 m.
the sun.
 Remember

Did you know :

The total length of DNA in
mammal cells is 2 metres –
in your body 10 billion km
It's hard to believe
that an alphabet
with only four
letters can make
something as
wonderful and
complex as a
person
 DNA Replication
• With cell division -chromosome split in two (mitoses
and meiosis )
• DNA must divide
• DNA must make exact copies of itself
• DNA molecule – unzip
• New bases attached themselves in correct place of
each strand
• Each strand becomes a double helix
• Sometimes mistakes happens – mutation
• Mutations is important in evolution
DNA Replication

Unzip
into two
single
strands
DNA
replication
continue

New bases
attached
themselves in
the correct
place of each
strand

Free nucleotides in
nucleoplasm
Two identical strands are formed
Each strand now becomes a double helix.

Strand 1 Strand 2
 Two
identical
strands are
formed
during
processes
like mitosis
and certain
phases of
meiosis
 DNA sequencing
• Technique used to identify sequence of bases
• The nucleotides are separated from each other in

the order that they are found in strand ofCDNA.

T A G

• Nucleotides appear as dark bands

• The sequence in the first segment
of DNA reads CTGA,
second segment TACG
• This is how DNA fingerprint is
compiled - Unique for every person
 DNA Fingerprinting

• DNA fingerprinting is often used by the police in

identifying the suspect of a crime.
• A useful but controversial method
• A sample of a suspect’s bodily fluid or tissue is to be
compared with a sample found at the scene of a crime.
• The pattern of lines represents a person’s specific
genetic make-up.
• DNA fingerprinting was used in the 9/11 disaster to identify
victims
 Assessment of DNA fingerprinting
• Read the following:

Inspector Ndlovu were investigating the scene of a violent crime.

The victim was a 70 –year old woman. She have been stabbed
and left to die. They found a view pieces of hair in one of her
hands. There was also skin under her nails.
They arrested three possible suspects. DNA samples were taken
from all three and the victim. DNA fingerprint samples of the
four samples was compared with the DNA fingerprints taken
from the crime scene.
 DNA
sample Victim Suspect Suspect Suspect
from 1 2 3
hair

Identify the suspect responsible for the crime out of

above evidence
 Uses of DNA fingerprinting –
evidence at crime scenes
• Police laboratories throughout the world
now use DNA fingerprinting from
biological evidence, left at the crime
scene to track criminals
• If DNA from biological evidence such as
blood, semen, hair, clothing is obtained
from the suspect they can safely say that
the evidence came from the suspect
• This is called forensic science
 Uses of DNA fingerprinting –
identifying people

• DNA fingerprints can be used to identify

relationships among individuals
• It can be used to establish whether a
particular person is the father of a child or not
• Tracing siblings ( brothers and sisters) who
have been separated at birth
• Identify people who died where their bodies
cannot be identified or recognised
 Uses of DNA fingerprinting -
developing Cures for Inherited
Disorders
• DNA fingerprinting allows researchers
to look for patterns in large groups of
people with and without the disorder

• This is a necessary first step in

designing an eventual genetic cure for
these diseases
 Ethics of DNA Fingerprinting
• Discuss the misuse of DNA fingerprinting by
using examples:
• DNA fingerprint results may be used for unauthorized
purposes such as to identify individuals with certain
stigmatizing illnesses.
• The potential for misuse increases if DNA fingerprint
results are kept in a database: like fingerprints, however,
the police are obliged to destroy DNA evidence if a
defendant is acquitted.
• There is also concern that insurance companies will
screen potential policyholders to exclude those carrying
genetic disorders.
 DNA
fingerprinting
differ from the
normal
fingerprinting.
Many people
have the same
fingerprint and
it is therefore
difficult to use
in crime
scenes