Chapter 13 : Kinematics Of A Particle –

Force and acceleration

 Chapter Objectives

• To state Newton’s Laws of Motion and Gravitational

Attraction and to define mass and weight.
• To analyze the accelerated motion of a particle using
the equation of motion with different coordinate
systems.
• To investigate central-force motion and apply it to
problems in space mechanics.
 Chapter Outline

• Newton’s Law of Motion

• The Equation of Motion
• Equation of Motion for a System of Particles
• Equations of Motion: Rectangular Coordinates
• Equations of Motion: Normal and Tangential
Coordinates
• Equations of Motion: Cylindrical Coordinates
• Central-Force Motion and Space Mechanics
 Newton’s Law of Motion

First Law: A particle originally at rest, or moving in

a straight line with a constant velocity, will remain
in this state provided the particle is not subjected
to an unbalanced force.
Second Law: A particle acted upon by an
unbalanced force F experiences an acceleration a
that has the same direction as the force and a
magnitude that is directly proportional to the force.
 Newton’s Law of Motion

Third Law: The mutual forces of action and

reaction between two particles are equal, opposite
and collinear.
Equation of motion: F = ma
Newton’s Law of Gravitational Attraction. A law
governing the mutual attractive gravitational force
acting between them.
m1m2
F G 2
r
 Newton’s Law of Motion

Mass and Weight. Mass is a property of matter

by which we can compare the response of one
body with that of another. It is an absolute quantity
since the measurement can be made at any
location. Weight of a body is not absolute since it is
measured in a gravitational field, hence its
magnitude depends on the location measured.
W mg
 Newton’s Law of Motion

SI System of Units. The mass of the body is

specified in kilograms and the weight must be
calculated using the equation of motion, F = ma
W = mg (N)
(g = 9.81 m/s2)
 The Equation of Motion

The equation of motion may be written as

 F ma
Consider particle P of mass m and subjected to the
action of two forces, F1 and F2.
 The Equation of Motion

From the free body diagram, the resultant of these

forces produces the vector ma, it magnitude and
direction can be represented graphically on the
kinetic diagram.

 F ma
 The Equation of Motion

Note that if FR = ΣF = 0, then acceleration is zero,

so that the particle will either remain at rest or
moves along a straight line with a constant
velocity.
Such a condition is called static equilibrium,
Newton’s First Law of Motion
 Equation of Motion for a System of
Particles

• Consider a system of n particles isolated within an

enclosed region in space.

• Arbitrary ith particle

having a mass of mi is
subjected to a system of
internal forces which
resultant force is
represented by fi and a
resultant external force Fi.
 Equation of Motion for a System of
Particles

• The free body diagram for the ith particle are

shown. Applying equation of motion yields
ΣF = ma; Fi + fi = miai

• If equation of motion is applied to

each of the other particles, these
equations can be added together
vectorially,
ΣFi + Σ fi = Σmiai
 Equation of Motion for a System of
Particles

• Since internal forces between particles all occur in

equal but opposite collinear pairs, the summation
of these internal forces will equal zero.
ΣFi = Σmiai
• If rG is a position vector which locates the center of
mass G of the particles, then mrG = Σmiri where m =
Σmi is the total mass of all the particles
• Differentiating twice w.r.t time yields
maG = Σmiai
 Equation of Motion for a System of
Particles

• Therefore,
ΣF = maG

• The sum of the external forces acting on the

system of particles is equal to the total mass of the
particles times the acceleration of its center of
mass G.
 Equation of Motion: Rectangular
Coordinates

• When a particle is moving relative to an inertial x,

y, z frame of reference, the forces acting on the
particle, and its acceleration may be expressed in
term of their i, j, k components

ΣF = ma
ΣFxi + ΣFyj + ΣFzk =
m(axi + ayj + azk)
 Equation of Motion: Rectangular
Coordinates

• We may write the following three scalar

equations:
 Fx max
 Fy ma y
 Fz maz
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Free-Body Diagram
• Select the inertial coordinate system
• Once the coordinates are established, draw the
particle’s free body diagram (FBD). It provides a
graphical representation that accounts for all forces
(ΣF) which acts on the particle, and thereby makes
it possible to resolve these forces into their x, y, z
components.
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

• The direction and sense of the particle’s

acceleration a should also be established. If the
senses of the components is unknown, assume
that they all are in the same direction as the
positive inertial coordinate axes.
• The acceleration may be represented as the ma
vector on the kinetic diagram.
• Identify the unknowns in the problem.
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Equation of Motion
• If the forces can be resolved directly from the
FBD, apply the equations of motion in their scalar
component form.
• If the geometry of the problem appears
complicated, Cartesian vector analysis can be used
for the solution.
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Kinematics
• If the velocity or position of the particle is to be
found, it will be necessary to apply the proper
kinematics equations once the particle’s
acceleration us determined from ΣF = ma
• If acceleration is a function of time, use a = dv/dt
and v = ds/dt, which integrated, yield the particle’s
velocity and position.
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

• If acceleration is a function of displacement,

integrate a ds = v dv to obtain the velocity as a
function of position.
• If acceleration is constant, use
v v0  act
1 2
s s0  v0t  act
2
v 2 v02  2ac s  s0 
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

• In all cases, make sure the positive inertial

coordinate directions used for writing the kinematic
equations are the same as those used for writing
the equations of motion, otherwise, simultaneous
solution of the equations will result in errors.
• If the solution for an unknown vector component
yields a negative scalar, it indicates that the
component acts in the direction opposite to that
which is assumed.
 Example 13.1

The 50-kg crate rests on a horizontal plane for

which the coefficient of kinetic friction is μk = 0.3. If
the crate is subjected to a 400-N towing force,
determine the velocity of the crate in 3 s starting
from rest.
 Example 13.1

Free-Body Diagram. The weight

of the crate is W = mg = 50 (9.81)
= 490.5 N. The frictional force has
a magnitude F = μkNC and acts to
the left, since it opposes the
motion of the crate. The
acceleration a is assumed to act
horizontally, in the positive x
direction. There are 2 unknowns,
namely NC and a.
 Example 13.1

Equations of Motion.

  Fx max ; 400 cos 30  0.3 NC 50a
  Fy ma y ; NC  490.5  400 sin 30 0

Solving for the two equations yields

NC 290.5 N
a 5.19m / s 2
 Example 13.1

Kinematics. Acceleration is constant, since

the applied force P is constant. Initial velocity is
zero, the velocity of the crate in 3 s is

v v0  act
0  5.19(3)
15.6m / s 
 Example 13.2

A 10-kg projectile is fired vertically

upward from the ground, with an initial
velocity of 50 m/s. Determine the max
height to which it will travel if
(a) atmospheric resistance is neglected.
(b) atmospheric resistance is measured
as FD = (0.01v2) N, where v is the
speed at any instant, measured in m/s
 Example 13.2

Part (a) Free-Body Diagram. The projectile’s

weight is W = mg = 10(9.81) = 98.1 N. Assuming
the unknown acceleration a acts upward in the
positive z direction.
Equations of Motion.
  Fz maz ;  98.1 10a, a  9.81m / s 2

The results indicates that the projectile

is subjected to a constant downward
acceleration of 9.81 m/s2
 Example 13.2

Kinematics. Initially, z0 = 0 and v0 = 50 m/s. At

max height, z = h and v = 0. Since acceleration is
constant, then
   v 2 2
v0  2ac ( z  z0 )
0 (50) 2  2( 9.81)(h  0)
h 127m
 Example 13.2

Part (b) Free-Body Diagram. Since the force

FD = (0.01v2) N tends to retard the upward motion
of the projectile, it acts downward as shown
Equations of Motion.
   Fz maz ;  0.01v 2  98.1 10a,
a  0.01v 2  9.81m / s 2
 Example 13.2

Kinematics. Here the acceleration is not

constant since FD depends on the velocity. Since
a = f(v), we relate a to position using
   a dz v dv; ( 0.001v 2  9.81)dz v dv
Integrating with initially z0 = 0, v0 = 50 m/s (positive
upward), and at z = h, v = 0
h 0 v dv 2 0
0 dz  50 0.001v 2  9.81  500 ln(v  9810) 50
h 114 m
 Example 13.3

The baggage truck A has a weight of 3600 N and

tows a 2200 N cart B and a 1300 N cart C. For a
short time the driving frictional force developed at
the wheels is FA = (160t) N where t is in seconds. If
the truck starts from rest, determine its speed in 2
seconds. What is the horizontal force acting on the
coupling between the truck and cart B at this
instant?
 Example 13.3

Free-Body Diagram. As shown, it is the frictional

driving force that gives both the truck and carts an
acceleration, we have to consider all 3 vehicles.
 Example 13.3

Equations of Motion. Only motion in the horizontal

direction has to be considered.
 3600  2200  1300 
  Fx max ; 
160t  a
 9.81 
a 0.221t
Kinematics. Since the acceleration is a
function of time, the velocity of the truck is obtained
using a = dv/dt with the initial condition that v0 = 0
at t = 0,
 Example 13.3

v 2 22
0 dv 0 (0.221t ) dt; v 0.1105t
0
0.442m / s

Free-Body Diagram. Considering the FBD of the

truck, we can “expose” the coupling force T as
external to the FBD.
 Example 13.3

Equations of Motion. When t = 2 s, then

 3600 

  Fx max ; 160(2)  T  0.221(2)
 9.81 
T 157.8 N
 Example 13.4

A smooth 2-kg collar C is

attached to a spring having a
stiffness k = 3 N/m and an
unstretched length of 0.75 m. If
the collar is released from rest
at A, determine its acceleration
and normal force of the rod on
the collar at the instant y = 1
m.
 Example 13.4

Free-Body Diagram. The FBD of the collar when

it is located at the arbitrary position y is as shown.
The weight is W = 2(9.81) = 19.62 N. The collar is
assumed to be accelerating so that “a” acts
downward in the positive y direction. There are four
unknown, namely, NC, Fs, a and θ.
 Example 13.4

Equations of Motion.

  Fx max ;  NC  Fs cos 0
   Fy ma y ; 19.62  Fs sin  2a

The magnitude of the spring force is a function of

the stretch s of the spring; i.e. Fs = ks. The
unstretched length is AB = 0.75m. Therefore
2 2
s CB  AB 3( y  (0.75)  0.75)
 Example 13.4

Since k = 3 N/m,
Fs ks 3( y 2  (0.75) 2  0.75)

The angle θ is related to y by trigonometry

y
tan  
0.75
For y = 1 m, θ = 53.1 and Fs = 1.50 N. Therefore,
NC = 0.900 N and a = 9.21 m/s2
 Example 13.5

The 100-kg block A is released from rest. If the

masses of the pulleys and the cord are neglected,
determine the speed of the 20-kg block B in 2 s.
 Example 13.5
View Free Body Diagram

Free-Body Diagrams. Since mass of

the pulleys is neglected, then for
pulley C, ma = 0 and we can apply
ΣFy = 0 as shown in (b). The FBD for
blocks A and B are shown in (c) and
(d) respectively. It can be seen that T
= 490.5 N for A to be static and T =
196.2 N for B to be static. We will
assume both blocks accelerate
downward, in the direction of +sA and
+sB
 Example 13.5

Equations of Motion.
Block A:
  Fy ma y ; 981  2T 100a A

Block B:
  Fy ma y ; 196.2  T 20aB
 Example 13.5

Kinematics. It is seen that

2 s A  sB l

where l is constant and represents the total vertical

length of cord. Differentiating this expression twice
w.r.t time yield
2 a A  a B
 Example 13.5

Solving the three equations yields

T 327.0 N
2
a A 3.27 m / s
aB  6.54m / s 2
Hence when block A accelerates downward, block
B accelerates upward. Since aB is constant,
velocity in block B in 2 s is
v v0  aBt  13.1m / s
 Equations of Motion: Normal and
Tangential Coordinates

When a particle moves over a curved path which is

known, the equation of motion for the particle may
be written in the tangential, normal and binormal
directions. We have
ΣF = ma
ΣFtut + ΣFnun + ΣFbub = mat +man

Here ΣFt, ΣFn, ΣFb represent the sums of all the

force components acting on the particle in the
tangential, normal and binormal directions.
 Equations of Motion: Normal and
Tangential Coordinates

Since the particle is constrained to move along the

path, there is no motion in the binormal direction

 Ft mat
 Fn man
 Fb 0
 Equations of Motion: Normal and
Tangential Coordinates

• at (=dv/dt) represents the time rate of change in

the magnitude of velocity
• Therefore if ΣFt acts in the direction of motion,
the particle’s speed will increase. If it acts in the
opposite direction, the particle will slow down.
• an (=v2/ρ) represents the time rate of change in
the velocity’s direction.
 Equations of Motion: Normal and
Tangential Coordinates

• Since this vector always acts in the positive n

direction, i.e. toward the path’s center of curvature,
then ΣFn, which causes an, also act in this direction.
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Free-Body Diagram
• Establish the inertial t, n, b coordinate system at
the particle and draw the particle’s free-body
diagram.
• The particle’s normal acceleration an, always acts
in the positive n direction.
• If the tangential acceleration at, is unknown,
assume it acts in the positive t direction
• Identify the unknowns in the problem
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Equation of Motion
• Apply the equations of motion,

 Ft mat
 Fn man
 Fb 0
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Kinematics
• Formulate the tangential and normal components
of acceleration; i.e. at =dv/dt or at = v dv/ds and an
= v2/ρ
• If the path is defined as y = f(x), the radius of
curvature at the point where the particle is located
can be obtains from
 
2 3/ 2
  1  dy / dx  / d 2 y / dx 2
 Example 13.6

Determine the banking θ for the race track so that

the wheels of the racing cars will not have to
depend upon friction to prevent any car from sliding
up or down the track. Assume the cars have
negligible size a mass m, and travel around the
curve of radius ρ with a speed v.
 Example 13.6

Free-Body Diagram. There is no frictional force

acting on the car. Here NC represents the resultant
of the ground on all four wheels. Since an can be
calculated, the unknown are NC and θ.
 Example 13.6

Equations of Motion. Using the n, b axes shown,

 2
v
  Fn man ; NC sin  m

  Fb 0; NC cos  mg 0

Solving the 2 equations, eliminating NC and m,

v2 
 1 v 2 
tan    tan  
g  g 
 Example 13.7

The 3-kg disk D is attached to the end of a cord.

The other end is attached to ball and socket joint
located at the center of platform. If the platform is
rotating rapidly, and the disk is placed on it and
released from rest, determine the time it takes for
the disk to reach a speed great enough to break
the cord. The max tension the cord can sustain is
100 N, and the coefficient of kinetic friction
between disk and platform is μk = 0.1
 Example 13.7

Free-Body Diagram. The frictional force has a

magnitude F = 0.1ND and its direction opposes the
relative motion of the disk w.r.t the platform. This
force gives the disk a tangential component of
acceleration causing v to increase, thereby causing
T to increase until it reaches 100-N
 Example 13.7

The weight of the disk is W = 3(9.81) = 29.43 N.

Since an can be related to v, the unknowns are ND,
at and v.
Equations of Motion.
 v2 
 Fn man ; T 3 
 1
 Ft mat ; 0.1N D 3at

 Fb 0; N D  29.43 0
 Example 13.7

Setting T = 100 N, the critical speed vcr of the disk

needed to break the card can be solved. Solving
for all three equations, we obtain
N D 29.43 N
at 0.981m / s 2
vcr 5.77 m / s
 Example 13.7

Kinematics. Since at is constant, the time

needed to break the cord is
vcr v0  at t
t 5.89 s
 Example 13.8

Design of the ski requires

knowing the type of forces
that will be exerted on the
skier and his approximate
trajectory. In the case as
shown, determine the normal
force and acceleration on the
600-N skier the instant he
arrives at the end of jump, A,
where his velocity is 9 m/s.
 Example 13.8

Free-Body Diagram. Since the path is curved,

there are two components of acceleration, an and
at. Since an can be calculated, the unknown are at
and NA.
Equations of Motions.
600  92 
   Fn man ; N A  600 
9.81  
600
  Ft mat ; 0 at
 9.81
 Example 13.8

The radius of curvature ρ for the path must be

determined at point A(0, -15 m). Here
1 2
y  x  15
60
dy 1
 x
dx 30
d2y 1
2

dx 30
 Example 13.8

So at x = 0,



1  (dy / dx)  2 3/ 2
2 2
d y / dx
X=0
30m

Solving for NA, NA = 765 N

 Example 13.8

Kinematics. With at = 0
v2
an  2.7 m / s 2

a A an 2.7 m / s 2 
 Example 13.9

Packages, each of mass 2-kg, are delivered from a

conveyor to a smooth circular ramp with a velocity
of v0 = 1 m/s. If the effective radius of the ramp is
0.5 m, determine the angle θ = θmax at which each
package begins to leave the surface.
 Example 13.9
View Free Body Diagram

Free-Body Diagram. The FBD for a package,

when it is located at the general position θ, is
shown. The package must have a tangential
acceleration at, since its speed is always increasing
as it slides downward. The weight is W = 2(9.81) =
19.62 N
 Example 13.9

Equations of Motion.
v2
+  Fn man ;  N B  19.62 cos 2
0. 5
(1)

+  Ft mat ; 19.62 sin  2at (2)

At the instant θ = θmax, the package leaves the

surface of the ramp as that NB = 0. Therefore the
three unknowns, v, at, and θ.
 Example 13.9

Kinematics. Noting that the magnitude of

tangential acceleration at may be related to the
speed of the package v and the angle θ. Since at ds
= v dv and ds = r dθ = 0.5 dθ
v dv
at  (3)
0. 5 d 
Subst Eq. 3 into Eq. 2 and separate the variables,
v dv 4.905 sin  d
 Example 13.9

Integrate both sides, realizing that when θ = 0°, v0

= 1 m/s
v 
1 v dv 4.9050 sin  d
v 2 9.81(1  cos )  1
Subst into Eq. 1 with NB = 0 and solving for cos θmax
2
19.62 cos max  9.81(1  cos max )  1
0.5
 max 42.7
The End (for now)
 Equations of Motion: Cylindrical
Coordinates

When all forces acting on a particle are resolved

into cylindrical components, i.e. along the unit-
vector directions ur, uθ, uz, the equation of motion
may be expressed as
ΣF = ma
ΣFrur + ΣFθuθ + ΣFzuz = marur +maθuθ+mazuz
 Equations of Motion: Cylindrical
Coordinates

We may write the following three scalar equations

of motion:

 Fr mar
 F ma
 Fz maz
 Equations of Motion: Cylindrical
Coordinates

Tangential and Normal Forces.

• Determination of the resultant force components
ΣFr, ΣFθ, ΣFz causing a particle to move with a
known acceleration.
• If acceleration is not specified at given instant,
directions or magnitudes of the forces acting on the
particle must be known or computed to solve.
• Consider the force P that causes the particle to
move along a path r = f(θ)
 Equations of Motion: Cylindrical
Coordinates

• The normal force N which the path exerts on the

particle is always perpendicular to the tangent of
the path.
• Frictional force F always acts along the tangent
in the opposite direction of motion.
 Equations of Motion: Cylindrical
Coordinates

• The directions of N and F can be specified

relative to the radial coordinate by using the angle
ψ, which is defined between the extended radial
line and the tangent to the curve.

r
tan 
dr / d
 Equations of Motion: Cylindrical
Coordinates

• If ψ is positive, it is measured from the extended

radial line to the tangent in a CCW sense or in the
positive direction θ
• If it is negative, it is measured in the opposite
direction to positive θ
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Free-Body Diagram
• Establish the r, θ, z inertial coordinate system and
draw the particle’s free body diagram.
• Assume that ar, aθ, az act in the positive directions
of r, θ, z if they are unknown.
• Identify all the unknowns in the problem.
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Equations of Motion
• Apply the equations of motion

 Fr mar
 F ma
 Fz maz
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Kinematics
• Determine r and the time derivatives r , r, ,, z and
then evaluate the acceleration components
2
ar r  r , a r  2r , a z z


• If any of the acceleration components is

computed as a negative quantity, it indicates that is
acts in it negative coordinate direction.
• Use chain rule when taking the time derivatives of
r = f(θ)
 Example 13.10

The 2-kg block moves on a smooth horizontal track

such that its path is specfied in polar coordinates
by the parametric equations r = (3t2) m and θ =
(0.5t) rad where t is in seconds. Determine the
magnitude of the tangential force F causing the
motion at the instant t = 1 s.
 Example 13.10

Free-Body Diagram. The normal force N, and the

tangential force F are located at an angle  from
the r and θ axes. By expressing r = f(θ), we yield r
= 12θ2. When t = 1 s, θ = 0.5 rad.
 Example 13.10

r 12 2
tan   0.25
dr / d 122 
 0.5rad

 14.04

Because  is a positive quantity, it is measured

counterclockwise from the r axis to the tangent
(same direction as θ). There are four unknowns: F,
N, ar and aθ
 Example 13.10

Equations of Motion.
  Fr mar ; F cos14.04  N sin 14.04 2ar
   F ma ; 
F sin 14.04  N cos14.04 2a 

Kinematics.
r 3t 2 3m  0.5t t 1s 0.5rad
t 1s
r t 1s 6m / s, r t 1s 6m / s 2 ,  0.5rad / s,  0
 Example 13.10

 2 2 2
ar r  r 6  3(0.5) 5.25m / s
a r  2r 3(0)  2(6)(0.5) 6m / s 2

Substituting into the two equations of motion and

solving,
F = 13.10 N
N = 9.22 N
 Example 13.11

A smooth 2-kg cylinder C has

a peg P through its center
which passes through the slot
in arm. If the arm rotates in
the vertical plane at a
constant rate  0.5rad / s ,
determine the force that the
arm exerts on the peg at the
instant θ = 60°
 Example 13.11

Free-Body Diagram. The force on the peg, Fp,

acts perpendicular to the slot in the arm. ar and aθ
are assumed to act in the directions of positive r
and θ respectively.
 Example 13.11

Equations of Motion.
+  Fr mar ; 19.62 sin   NC sin  2ar (1)

+  F ma ; 19.62 cos  FP  NC cos 2a (2)

Kinematics. From the FBD, r can be related to

θ by the equation,
0 .4
r 0.4 csc
sin 
Example 13.11

 0.5 r 0.4 csc

 0 r  0.4(csc cot  )
 0.2 csc cot 
r  0.2( csc cot  )( ) cot 
 0.2 csc ( csc2  )
0.1csc (cot 2   csc2  )
 Example 13.11

Evaluating the formulas at θ = 60°, we get,

 0.5 r 0.462
 0 r  0.133
r 0.192
ar r  r 2 0.0770
a r  2r  0.133
Substituting these results into Eqs. 1 and 2 with θ =
60°,
NC = 19.4 N FP = -0.356 N
 Example 13.12

A can C, having mass 0.5-kg, moves along a

grooved horizontal slot. The slot is in a form of
spiral defined by equation r = (0.1θ) m, where θ is
in radians. If the arm OA is rotating at a constant
rate  4rad / s in the horizontal plane, determine
the force it exerts on the can at the instant θ = π
rad.
 Example 13.12
View Free Body Diagram

Free-Body Diagram. The driving force FC acts

perpendicular to the arm OA. The normal force on
the wall of the slot on the can, NC, acts
perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at θ = π
rad.
The angle  which the extended
radial line r makes with the tangent
can be determined
r
tan  
dr / d
 Example 13.12

1 
When θ = π ,  tan  72.3 so that
 90   17.7
 Example 13.12

Equations of Motion. Using  17.7


  Fr mar ; NC cos17.7 0.5ar (1)

  F ma ; FC  NC sin 17.7 0.5a (2)

Kinematics. The time derivatives of r and θ are
 4rad / s r 0.1
 0 r 0.1 0.4m / s
r 0.1 0
 Example 13.12

At the instant   rad,

ar r  r 2  5.03m / s 2
a r  2r 3.20m / s 2

Substituting these results into Eqs. 1 and 2,

NC = -2.64 N
FC = 0.800 N
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• If a particle is moving under the influence of a

force having a line of action which is always
directed toward a fixed point, the motion is called
central-force motion.

• Consider particle P which

has a mass m and is acted
upon only by the central
force F.
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• Using polar coordinates (r, θ), the equations of

motion,
 d 2r 2
 d 
 F m  2  r  
 dt  dt  
 d 2 dr d  
0 m r 2  2 

 dt dt dt 
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The second of these equations may be written

1  d  2 d  
 r   0
r  dt  dt  
so that integrating yields
2 d
r h
dt
• The areal velocity is defined as
dA 1 2 d h
 r 
dt 2 dt 2
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The areal velocity for a particle subjected to

central-force motion is constant.
• The particle will sweep out equal segments of
area per unit of time as it travels along the path.
• To obtain the path of motion, r = f(θ)
dr dr d h dr
  2
dt d dt r d
d 2r  d  h dr   h
2
  2  2
dt  d  r d   r
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• Substituting a new dependent variable (xi)  1 / r

into the second equation, we have
d 2r d 2

2
 h 2 2
2
dt d
• Thus, we obtain
2
2 2 d  F 2 3
 h 2
 h  
d m
d 2 F
or 2
  2 2
d mh 
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• By Newton’s law of gravitational, the force of

attraction is given by
M em
F G 2
r
• Therefore,
d 2 GM e
2
  2
d h

This is a second O.D.E with constant coefficients

and is nonhomogeneous.
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The complementary and particular solution are

c C cos(   )
GM e
p 
h2
The complete solution is
1 GM e
  C cos(   )  2
r h
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The equation represent the free-flight trajectory. It

is the equation of a conic section expressed in
terms of polar coordinates.
• a conic section is defined as
the locus of point P, which
moves in a plane in such a
way that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point F,
to its distance from a fixed
line is constant.
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The fixed point is called focus, and the fixed line

DD is called the directrix.
• The constant ratio is called the eccentricity of the
conic section and is denoted by e
FP
e
PA
which may be written in the form
F P r e( PA ) e p  r cos   
1 1 1
 cos    
r p ep
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The eccentricity of the conic section for the

trajectory is
Ch 2
e
GM e
• The fixed distance from the focus to the directrix
is 1
p
C
• When angle  is zero,
1 GM e
C cos  2
r h
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The constant h and C are determined from the

data obtained for the position and velocity of the
satellite at the end of the power-flight trajectory.
• For example, if the initial height or distance to the
space vehicle is r0 and it initial speed is v0, then the

constant h may be obtained when     0
• The velocity v0 has no radial component
2 d
h r0
dt
h r0v0
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• With θ = 0°, r = r0, we can determine C

1  GM e 
C  1 
r0  r0v02 
• The equation for the free-flight trajectory becomes

1 1  GM e  GM e
 1  2  cos 
r r0  r0v0  r0v02
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The type of path taken by the satellite is

determined from the value of the eccentricity of the
conic section. If

e=0 free-flight trajectory is circle

e=1 free-flight trajectory is parabola
e<1 free-flight trajectory is ellipse
e>1 free-flight trajectory is hyperbola
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The initial launch

velocity, v0, required to
follow a parabolic path is
called the escape velocity,
ve.
2GM e
ve 
r0
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• The speed vc required to launch a satellite into a

circular orbit is
GM e
vc 
r0
• Provided r0 represents a minimum height for
launching, speeds at launch which is less than vc
will cause satellite to recenter the earth’s
atmosphere and either burn up or clash.
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• All trajectories attained

by planets and most
satellites are eilliptical.
• For a satellite’s orbit
about the earth, the
minimum distance from
the orbit to the center of
earth O, is rp and can be
found with θ = 0° rp r0
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• This minimum distance is called the perigee of the

orbit.
• The apogee or maximum distance ra can be found
with θ = 180°
r0
ra 
 2

2GM e / r0v0  1

• The semimajor axis a of the ellipse is

rp  ra
a
2
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• Using analytical geometry, it can be shown that

the minor axis b is determined from the equation
b  rp ra
• By direct integration, the area of an ellipse is

A ab 
2
rp  ra  rp ra

• The areal velocity has been defined as dA/dt =

h/2. Integrating yields A = hT/2
 Central-Force Motion and Space
Mechanics

• T is the period of time required to make one

orbital revolution.

T
h
rp  ra  rp ra
 Example 13.13

A satellite is launched 600 km from the surface of

the earth, with an initial velocity of 30Mm/h acting
parallel to the tangent at the surface of the earth.
Assuming that the radius of the earth is 6378 km
and that its mass is 5.976(1024) kg, determine (a)
the eccentricity of the orbital path and (b) the
velocity of the satellite at apogee.
Example 13.13

View Free Body Diagram

rp r0 6378  600 6.978(106 )m

v0 30 Mm / h 8333.3m / s
 h rp v0 6.978(106 )8333.3 58.15(109 )m 2 / s
1  GM e  9 1
C  1   25. 4 (10 ) m
r0  r0v02 
Ch 2
e 0.215  1 Orbit is an ellipse
GM e
 Example 13.13

If the satellite is launched at the apogee A, with a

velocity vA, the same orbit would maintained
provided that

h rp v0 ra v A
58.15(109 )m 2 / s
Example 13.13

r0
ra  10.804(106 )
 2GM e 
  1
 r v2 
 0 0 
58.16(109 )
vA  6
5382.2m / s 19.4 Mm / h
10.804(10 )
 Chapter Review
Kinetic.
• Study of the relationship between forces and the
acceleration they cause
• Based on the Newton’s second law
∑F = ma
• Mass m is proportionality constant between the
resultant force acting on the particle and the
acceleration caused by this resultant
• Mass represents the quantity of matter contained within
the particle
• Measures the change in
its motion
 Chapter Review
Inertial Coordinate Systems
• Important to measure the acceleration from an
inertial coordinate system when applying equations
of motion
• Has axes that are fixed or translate with constant
velocity
• Various types of inertial coordinate systems can
be used to apply ∑F = ma in component form
• Rectangular axes x, y and z are used to describe
rectilinear motion along each axes
 Chapter Review
Inertial Coordinate Systems
 Chapter Review
• Normal and tangential n, t axes are used when
the path is known
• an is always directed in the +n direction
• an indicates the change in the velocity magnitude
• Cylindrical coordinates are useful when angular
motion of the radial coordinate r is specified or
when the path can conveniently be described with
these coordinates
 Chapter Review

• For some problem, the direction of the forces on

the FBD require coordinate angle ψ between the
extended radial coordinate and the tangent to the
curve r
tan 
dr / d
 Chapter Review
Central Force Motion
• When a single force acts upon a particle, such as
free motion trajectory of a satellite In a gravitational
field, the motion is referred to as central force
motion
• Orbit depends upon the eccentricity e and as a
result, the trajectory can be circular, parabolic,
elliptical, or hyperbolic