Statistics & Probability

What is Statistics?
Statistics is the art and science of extracting information from data

Statistics
Data Information

Information:
Data: Raw facts and Communicated
figures, especially concerning some
numerical facts, particular facts.
collected together for
information.
Why study statistics?
1. Data are everywhere
2. Statistical techniques are used to make many decisions that affect
our lives
3. No matter what your career, you will make professional decisions
that involve data. An understanding of statistical methods will help
you make these decisions efectively

Statistics is a collection of methods for planning

experiments, obtaining data, and then processing,
summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and
drawing scientific conclusions based on the data under
Variation and Uncertainty
• Statistics is the subject which deals with the variability. No two
objects in a universe are exactly alike. If they were, there would
have been no statistical problem.

• It also deals with uncertainty as every process of getting

observations whether controlled or uncontrolled, involves
deficiencies or chance variation. That is why we have to talk in
terms of probability since the inferences which are made about
the population on the basis of sample evidence cannot be
absolutely certain.
Population vs Sample
Statistical
Inference

Population Sample
(have Parameters) (have
Statistic)

Parameters: µ, σ, ρ Statistic: , S, r

Population: A Population is Sample: A representative

a group of all part/subset of the
object/elements/items population.
under investigation.
Why Sampling?

• A process of drawing a sample from population is called

sampling.
• Reduced cost
• Greater speed
• Greater accuracy
• Some times it is the only option (testing the life of bulbs/bulets)
Branches of Statistics

Statistics

Descriptive Inferential

Involves in Organization,
Using sample information
Summarization, and Display of
such as , S, r, p to draw
Data into Tables, Graphs and
Inference about Unknown
Summary Numbers such as
Population Parameters.
, S, r, p
Variable Any Characteristics that varies from Object to Object, Place to Place
or Over time is known as Variable. e.g., marks, age, height, sex,
temperature, sales, revenue, time etc.

Variable

Qualitative Quantitative

Characteristic which
varies in quality (not Discrete Continuous
numerically) e.g.,
Eye colour, Height
No. of students
Education level, Weight
No. of chairs
Behaviour, Marks
No. of deaths
Quality, Time
No. of births in a hospital
Design, Distance
No. of accidents
Performance Temperature
Measurement

• The process of assigning numbers or labels to objects, persons, states

or, events in accordance with specific logically accepted rules for
representing quantities or qualities of attributes or characteristics.
• There are actually four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio [psychologist researcher named Stanley Stevens
1951].
Nominal

• Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without any quantitative
value.

• Nominal scales are mutually exclusive (non-overlapping) categories

where order of the categories is not important.

Examples:
Sex, Blood Groups, Religion, Marital status, Political affiliation, Eye colour
Ordinal
• Order of the values is important and significant, but the differences
between each one is not really known.
Poor  Fair  Good  Very Good  Excellent

• But, Is the difference between “Very Good” and “Excellent” the same
as the difference between “Good” and “Very Good?” We can’t say.

Example:
Cricket teams standings in ICC ranking, Students’ Grades, Class Positions
etc.
Interval
• Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order,
but also the exact differences between the values. i.e., Constant interval
size
• No “true zero” point i.e., Zero does not mean absence

• With interval data, we can add and subtract, but cannot multiply or
divide.

Example: Temperature, IQ scores, Shoe size

Ratio

• Ratio scales tell us about the order, they tell us the exact
value between units, AND they also have a “true zero” point

Example:
Bank Balance, Height, Weight, Speed, Length
Qualitative data
Example 1: Consider the data about Sex of 10 students
Sex M F M M F M F M M M

• Make a frequency distribution, relative frequency and % frequency of the

above data and interpret your results? Make an appropriate graph?
Example 2: Suppose we have also collected data of Sections of these 10
students as
Sex M F M M F M F M M M
Section A A A B B B A B A B

• Construct the Cross tabulation of the above data and interpret your results?
Also make an appropriate graph?
Solution
Sex f Relative % freq Sex Sec A Sec B Total
Example 1 Example 2
freq
Male 7 0.7 70 Male 3 4 7
Female 3 0.3 30 Female 2 1 3

Total 10 1.0 100 Total 5 5 10

Bar Chart Multiple Bar chart

8
7 5
7
6 4
Frequency

Frequency
5 Sec A
3
4
3 2
Sec B
3
2 1
1
0
0 Male Female
Male Female
Sex
Sex
Simple Bar Chart
• A bar chart is a type of chart which shows the values of different
categories of data as rectangular bars with different lengths.
Example: Draw a Simple Bar Chart to represent the Population of 5
cities of the province Punjab.
Bar diagram showing Population of 5 cities
Cities Population (000) of Punjab
12,000
Lahore 10,355 10,355
10,000
Rawalpindi 4,765

Population in ‘000’
8,000
Faisalabad 3,675
6,000
Sargodha 1,550 4,765
3,675
4,000 3,100
Multan 3,100 2,000 1,550

0
Lahore Rawalpindi Faisalabad Sargodha Multan
Cities
Multiple Bar Chart

Population
Cities (000) Male Female Multiple Bar Chart showing
Population of Males and
Lahore 10,355 5385 4,970 6000
5385 Females
4,970
Rawalpindi 4,765 2478 2,287 5000 Males Females
Faisalabad 3,675 1911 1,764 4000

Population
Sargodha 1,550 806 744 3000
2478
2,287
2000 1911
1,764

1000 806 744

0
Lahore Rawalpindi Faisalabad Sargodha

Cities
Component Bar Chart

Component Bar Chart showing population of

both Males and Females and Total
Cities Pop (000) Male Female
12000
Lahore 10,355 5385 4,970
10000 Males
Rawalpindi 4,765 2478 2,287 Females
8000 4,970

Population
Faisalabad 3,675 1911 1,764
6000

Sargodha 1,550 806 744 4000

2,287
5385 1,764
2000
2478 1911 744
0
806
Lahore Rawalpindi Faisalabad Sargodha

Cities
Discrete data – Frequency
Distribution
Example:
• Following data represents the number of infected plants from a
sample of twenty experimental plots. Your task is to present it in
tabular form.

1 2 4 3 0 1 2 3 1 1 0
2 1 0 2 3 0 0 1 3
Discrete Frequency Distribution
No. of infected Tally Frequency Relative
items frequency
f
X
0 |||| 5 5/20 = 0.25
1 |||| | 6 0.30
2 |||| 4 0.20
3 |||| 4 0.20
4 | 1 0.05
Total 20 1.00
Graphical Representation of Discrete
Data
Bar Chart representing the infected items
7

6
6
5
5
Frequency

4
4 4
3

1
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
No. of infected items
Pie Chart
• A pie chart is a type of graph in which a circle is divided into sectors
that each represent a proportion of the whole.
Example: The blood group of 70 students were tested and the following
results were obtained.

Blood No. of Blood Groups of Students

Groups Students (f)

A 8 17% 11%
A
B
B 30 O
29% AB
43%
O 20
AB 12
Pie Chart
Blood No. of Relative Percent Angle
Groups Students frequency frequency rf x 360
(f)

A 8 8/70 = 0.11 0.11*100 = 11 39.6

B 30 0.43 43 154.8

O 20 0.29 29 104.4 Divide the total

angle of the Circle
AB 12 0.17 17 61.2 360 into four
segments as
Total 70 1.00 100 360 calculated
Simple Bar Chart

• Consider the Same example of the blood group of 70 students

Blood No. of Blood Groups

Groups Students (f) 35
30
30
A 8 25
20
B 30 20

O 20 15 12
10 8
AB 12
5
0
A B O AB