Industrial Process Control

(EMEg5171)

CHAPTER 3
CONTROLLER PRINCIPLES

Lidiya A.

2022 gc
 OUTLINE
1. Process Characteristics
 Process Equation, Process Load, Process Lag and Self-Regulation

2. Control System Parameters

 Error, Control Lag, Dead Time and Cycling

3. Controller Mode
a) Discontinuous Controller Mode
 Two-Position (ON/OFF) Mode, Multi-position Mode and Floating Control Mode

b) Continuous Controller Mode

 P, I, and D controller modes
c) Composite Controller Mode
 PI, PD, and PID controller modes
 Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter students will be able to:

 Define & understand the process characteristics

 Define & understand the control system parameters
 Describe discontinuous and continuous controller modes
 Compare and differentiate discontinuous and continuous controller modes
 List advantages and disadvantages of discontinuous & continuous controller
modes
 Describe the composite controller modes
 Advantages and disadvantages of composite controller modes
 PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
The selection of what controller modes to use in a process is a function of the
characteristics of the process.
 The following prominent characteristics of process are helpful in understanding the
controller modes and also in selection of appropriate controller mode for
implementation.
 Process Equation
 Process Load
 Process Lag
 Self-regulation
To define and understand the various process characteristics we will take an example
of a process control loop as shown
Cont…
Consider the control of liquid temperature:
 the controlled variable is liquid temperature TL.
 The liquid temperature is depends on many other
parameters such as,
 input flow rate via pipe A (QA),
 output flow rate via pipe B (QB),
 ambient temperature (TA),
 steam temperature (TS),
 inlet temperature of the liquid (TO) and
Control of liquid temperature in a tank by process control
 the steam flow rate (QS).
 In this example QS is the controlling parameters/manipulated variable chosen to provide control
over the controlled variable (liquid temperature).
 If one of the other parameters changes, a change in temperature results. To bring the temperature
back to the setpoint value, we change only the steam flow rate—that is, heat input to the process.
1. Process Equation
Temperature control of a stirred tank reactor
2. Process Load
In a process, it is possible to identify a set of values for the process parameters that
results in the controlled variable having the setpoint value. i.e. nominal set
The process load refers to this set of parameters excluding the controlled variable
When all the parameters in the process load have their nominal value then the
load is called Nominal load
The required controlling variable value under this condition is the nominal value
of the parameter.
When any parameter changes from their nominal value, we say process load change
or simply load change has occurred.
In the previous example a process load change can be caused by a change in any of
the five parameters affecting the liquid temperature.
What causes controlled variable deviate from setpoint in process control:
Setpoint change
Load change
Transient
Cont…
If the setpoint is changed, the control parameter/manipulated parameter is altered to
cause the controlled variable to adopt this new operating point.
However, the load is still nominal (i.e. load change has not occurred), because the other
parameters are to assumed unchanged.
Suppose one of the parameters change from nominal, causing a corresponding shift
in the controlled variable.
 Then a process load change has occurred.
 The controlling variable is adjusted to compensate for this load & to bring controlled
variable back to setpoint.
Another type of change involves a temporary variation of one of the load parameters.
After this variation, the parameter return to its nominal value. This variable is called
transient.
A transient causes variations of the controlled variable from setpoint, and the control
system must make equally transient changes of the controlling variation to keep error to a
minimum
A transient is not a load change because it is not permanent.
3. Process Lag
4. Self-Regulation
A significant characteristic of some processes having the tendency to adopt some/stable value
of controlled variable under nominal load without regulation via process control loop is called
self-regulation.
The control operations may be significantly affected by such self-regulation.

Example:

Liquid temperature control process in previous example has self-regulation, as shown by the following
argument:
 Suppose we fix the steam valve at 50% and open the control loop so that no changes in valve position
are possible.
 The liquid heats up until the energy carried away by the liquid equals that input energy from the steam
flow. Then the system stabilizes to the temperature where input and output energies are equal.
 If a load change occur, a new temperature is adopted and the system stabilizes at that temperature.
Example of a process without self-regulation is a tank from which liquid is pumped at a fixed rate.
 CONTROL SYSTEM PARAMETERS
We have just described the basic characteristics of the process that are related to
control.
Let us now examine the general properties of the controller shown below:

To review:
 Inputs to the controller are a measured indication of both the controlled variable and a setpoint
representing the desired value of the variable, expressed in the same fashion as the measurement;
 the controller output is a signal representing action to be taken when the measured value of the
controlled variable deviates from the setpoint.
The measured indication of a variable is denoted by b, and the actual variable is
denoted by c.
1. Error
Cont…

Example
The temperature in previous example
has a range of 300 to 440 K and a
setpoint of 384 K. Find the percent of
span error when the temperature is
379 K.
2. Control Lag
The control system also has a lag associated with its operation that must be compared
with process lag for appropriate control action.
When controlled variable experiences sudden change, the process control loop reacts
by giving command to final control element to adopt a new value to compensate for
the detected change and this event takes some time.
Control lag refers to the time for the process control loop to make necessary
adjustments to the final control element.

For example:
 If a sudden change in liquid temperature occurs, it requires
some finite time for the control system to actuate the steam
control valve.
3. Dead Time
Another time variable associated with process control is a function of both the
process control system and the process.
Dead time is the elapsed time between the instant a deviation (error) occurs and
when the corrective action first occurs.
Example:
An example for dead time is the control of chemical reaction by varying reactant
flow through a long pipe.
oWhen a deviation is detected, a control system quickly changes a valve setting to adjust
flow rate.
oSince the pipe is particularly long, there is a period of time during which no effect is felt in
the reaction vessel.
oThis is the time required for the new flow rate to move down the length of the pipe.
4. Cycling
Cycling is defined as the oscillations of the error about zero value or nominal value.
This means that the variable will be cycling above and below the setpoint value.
Steady-state cycling is one in which oscillations will continue indefinitely.
In such conditions peak amplitude of error and
period of oscillations are important in understanding the nature of process variable.
Transient cycling is one in which oscillations will decay to zero after some time.
In such conditions initial error,
period of cyclic oscillations, and
decay time are important in understanding the nature of process variable.
 CONTROLLER MODES
 The controller was already defined by the statement that

“A controller generates a control signal to the final element, based on

a measured deviation of the controlled variable from the setpoint”.
It is natural to ask how the controller responds to the deviation.
These question is answered by specifying the mode of the controller
operation.
Generally, Controller modes refer to the methods to generate different types of
control signals to final control element to control the process variable.
Cont…
Broad classifications of different controller modes used in process control are as follows:
1. Discontinuous Controller Modes
a. Two-position (ON/OFF) Mode
b. Multi-position Mode
c. Floating Control Mode: Single Speed and Multiple Speed
2. Continuous Controller Modes
a. Proportional Control Mode
b. Integral Control Mode
c. Derivative Control Mode
3. Composite Controller Modes
a. Proportional-Integral Control (PI Mode)
b. Proportional-Derivative Control (PD Mode)
c. Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control (PID or Three Mode Control)
Cont…
 Discontinuous controller modes
In these controller modes the controller output will be discontinuous with
respect to controlled variable error.
1. Discontinuous Controller Modes
a. Two-position (ON/OFF) Mode
b. Multi-position Mode
c. Floating Control Mode: (Reading assignment)
Two-Position (ON.OFF) Mode

Two-position controllers are purposely designed with neutral zone to prevent excessive
cycling.
Multi-position Mode
 Continuous controller modes
Unlike the discontinuous mode the controller output changes smoothly in response to
the error or rate of change of error.
These modes are an extension of discontinuous controller modes.
In most of industrial processes one or combination of continuous controllers are
preferred.
Proportional Control Mode
Integral Control Mode
Derivative Control Mode
How much? Proportional Mode
How long? Integral Mode
How fast? Derivative Mode
Proportional Control mode
In this mode a smooth, linear relationship exists between the controller output and
the error magnitude.
Is a natural extension of ON/OFF control mode.
In ON/OFF control mode the controller output saturates at
either 0% or 100%
But in this mode there is a smooth relation between controller
output and error before the output saturates at 0% (OFF state)
or 100% (ON state). o
Between these saturation levels, there is a band of error, where every value of error has
a unique value of controller output.
There is a one-to-one correspondence exist between controller output and error.
The range of error to cover 0% to 100% of controller output is known as
Proportional Band (PB)
The one-to-one correspondence exist only for error in this range
Cont…

 Thus offset is the inherent disadvantage of proportional controller

OFFSET: a permanent residual error

Applications
Whenever there is one-to-one correspondence of controller output is required with respect to error
change proportional mode will be ideal choice.
The offset error limits the use of proportional mode, but it can be used effectively wherever it is
possible to eliminate the offset by resetting the operating point.
Proportional control is generally used in processes where large load changes are unlikely or with
moderate to small process lag times.
Example
1. For a proportional controller, the controlled variable is a process temperature with a range of 50 to
130 oC and a setpoint of 73.5 oC. Under nominal conditions, the setpoint is maintained with an
output of 50%. Find the proportional offset resulting from a load change that requires a 55%
output if the proportional gain is (a) 0.1 (b) 0.7 (c) 2.0 and (d) 5.0.
Integral Control Mode
 Cont…
Another way of observing this control mode is:

This equation shows that when an error occurs, the controller begins to increase (or
decrease) its output at a rate that depends upon the size of the error and the gain.
Characteristics of Integral Control Mode
1) If the error is zero, the output stays fixed at a value equal to what it was when the error
went to zero (i.e. p(0))
2) If the error is not zero, the output will begin to increase or decrease at a rate of KI %/sec
for every 1% of error.
Note That
 This mode successfully eliminate offset, but in the process its response is sluggish.
 If the process lag is too large, the error can oscillate about zero or even be cyclic.

Applications: In general, integral control mode is not used alone, but can be used for systems with small
process lags and correspondingly small capacities.
Example
An integral controller has a reset action of 2.2 minutes. Express the integral controller
constant in s-1. Find the output of this controller to a constant error of 2.2%.
Derivative Control Mode
Cont…
Derivative action is not used alone because it provides no output when the error is
constant.
Example
How would a derivative controller with KD = 4 s respond to an error that varies as
ep=2.2 Sin(0.04t)?
 Composite control modes
Due to offset error, proportional mode is not used alone. Similarly, integral and
derivative modes are not used individually in practice.
Thus, to take the advantages of various modes together, the composite control modes
are used.
Composite modes of controller operation combine advantages of each pure mode.
1. Proportional-Integral Control Mode (PI Mode):
2. Proportional-Derivative Control Mode (PD Mode):
3. Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control Mode (PID or Three Mode):
Proportional-Integral Control mode

Application, Advantages and Disadvantages:

 This composite PI mode eliminates the offset problem of proportional controller.
 The mode can be used in systems with frequent or large load changes
 Because of integration time the process must have relatively slow changes in load to
prevent oscillations induced by the integral overshoot.
Proportional-Derivative Control mode
Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control mode
Thank You