UNIT 2

IPV4 Addressing
ARCHITECTURE
 IPv4 ADDRESSES

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and

universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.
An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.
The IPv4 addresses are unique
and universal.
The address space of IPv4 is
232 or 4,294,967,296.
Figure Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address
 Example 1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary

notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number and add dots for separation.
 Example 2

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent.
 Example 3

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
 Figure Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation

In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes:

A, B, C, D, and E.

Yellow-Network ID

White-host ID
 Example 4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
Table Number of blocks and block size in classfull IPv4 addressing

In classful addressing, a large part of

the available addresses were wasted.
A subnet mask is a number that defines a range of IP addresses that can

be used in a network

Table Default masks for classfull addressing

Classful addressing, which is almost

obsolete, is replaced with classless
addressing.
CIDR-Classless InterDomain Routing
Subnet
A portion of a network that shares a common address component.
Dividing the IP addresses into several contiguous groups to form
smaller networks
Subnetting
process of diving a larger network into group or smaller networks
Address depletion
insufficient addresses due to increase in devices and organizations
Classless addressing
size of the block varies based on the nature and size of the entity
This is done by allocating some bits for network id from host id or vise
versa
Figure A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

Figure shows a block of addresses, in both binary and dotted-decimal notation,

granted to a small business that needs 16 addresses.

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block.

•The addresses are contiguous.
•The number of addresses is a power of 2 (16 = 2 4)
•the first address is divisible by 16.
 In IPv4 addressing, a block of
addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the
addresses and the /n defines the mask.

The first address in the block can be

found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 0s.
 Example 6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization.

We know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28.
What is the first address in the block?

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100000
or
205.16.37.32.
This is actually the block shown in Figure
 Example 19.7

The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.

Find the last address for the block in Example 19.6.

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
This is actually the block shown in Figure
 Example 8

The number of addresses in the block

can be found by using the formula
232−n.

Find the number of addresses in Example 19.6.

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.
 Example 9

Another way to find the first address, the last address, and
the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-
bit binary number. This is particularly useful when we
are writing a program to find these pieces of information.
In Example 6 the /28 can be represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).

Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.
 Example 9 (continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.
 Example 9 (continued)

b. The last address can be found by ORing the given

addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 and each 0 to 1.
 Example 9 (continued)

c. The number of addresses can be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number, and adding 1 to it.
Figure A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32/28

The first address in a block is

normally not assigned to any device;
it is used as the network address that
represents the organization
to the rest of the world.
Figure Two levels of hierarchy in an IPv4 address
 Figure A frame in a character-oriented protocol

Each address in the block can be considered as a two-level

hierarchical structure: the leftmost n bits (prefix) define
the network;the rightmost 32 − n bits define the host.
Figure Configuration and addresses in a subnetted network
VLSM
Figure Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address
VLSM
 Example 10 VLSM

An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with

190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses
are still available after these allocations.
Figure An example of address allocation and distribution by an ISP (VLSM)
 Example 10 (continued) VLSM

Solution
Figure 9 shows the situation.
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This
means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses
are
 Example 10 (continued) VLSM

Group 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 (log2 128) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses
are
 Example 10 (continued) VLSM
Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
Table Addresses for private networks
Figure A NAT implementation
Figure Addresses in a NAT
Figure NAT address translation
Table Five-column translation table
Figure An ISP and NAT
 NETWORKING DEVICES

Passive Hubs(just a connector)

Active Hubs(multiport repeater)

Bridges

Two-Layer Switches

Routers

Three-Layer Switches

Gateways
Figure Five categories of connecting devices
 Figure A repeater connecting two segments of a LAN

A repeater connects segments of a LAN.

A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability.

A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.

Figure Function of a repeater
Figure A hierarchy of hubs
 Figure A bridge connecting two LANs

A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions-checks the destination address of a

frame and decide to forward or drop.

A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.

 Transparent bridges

The stations are completely unaware of the bridge existence.

Criteria for transparent bridges:

•Frames must be forwarded from one station to another.
•The forwarding table is made automatically by learning frame movements
•Loops must be prevented.
Forwarding table is dynamic through learning.

Loop problem:
•Redundancy can create loops in the system which is undesirable.
•Same frame may be forwarded to the bridges multiple times due to looping
Figure A learning bridge and the process of learning
Figure Loop problem in a learning bridge
Figure A system of connected LANs and its graph representation
 Spanning Tree

•It is a graph with no loop

•Create a topology in which each LAN can be reached from any other LAN through
one path only.
•Create a logical topology that overlays the physical one

Algorithm:
•Select the root bridge which has smallest bridge ID(unique serial number).each
bridge broadcasts its Bridge Id so all bridges know the ID of the other.
•Find the shortest path from root bridge to every other bridge by examining the
total cost.
• combination of shortest paths create shortest tree
Figure Finding the shortest paths and the spanning
tree in a system of bridges
Figure Forwarding and blocking ports after using spanning
tree algorithm
Issues to be considered when connecting different LAN using bridges

•Frame format
•Maximum data size
•Data rate
•Bit order
•Security
•Multimedia support

Two layer switch: It performs at physical and data link layer

Ex: bridge
 Figure Routers connecting independent LANs and WANs

Routers
•Three layer device that routes the packets based on logical addressing
•Connects LAN and WAN
•It has a routing table to make decisions about the route.
•Routing tables are dynamic and updates using routing protocols
(draw a scenario with routers and write the routing table as example)