Theory of Computation

SY BTech CSE-AIDS
Unit- III

Context Free Grammar(CFG) and

Pushdown Automata
 Unit- III
Context Free Grammar(CFG) and Pushdown
Automata
 Course Objectives & Course Outcomes
Course Objectives:
•To understand the basics of automata theory and its operations.
•To understand problem classification and problem solving by machines.
•To study computing machines by describing, classifying and comparing different types
of computational models.
•To understand the fundamentals of decidability and computational complexity.

Course Outcomes:
• After completion of this course students will be able:
•To construct finite state machines to solve problems in computing.
•To write mathematical expressions and syntax verification for the formal languages.
•To construct and analyze Push Down Automata and Turing Machine for formal
languages.
•To express the understanding of decidability and complexity.
 Text Books & Reference Books

• Text Books
•John C. Martin, Introduction to Language and Theory of Computation, TMH,
3rdEdition, ISBN: 978-0-07-066048-9.
•Vivek Kulkarni, Theory of Computation, Oxford University Press, ISBN-13: 978-0-
19-808458-7.
• Reference Books
•K.L.P Mishra,N. Chandrasekaran,Theory of Computer Science (Automata, Languages
and Computation), Prentice Hall India, 2nd Edition.
•Michael Sipser, Introduction to the Theory of Computation,CENGAGE Learning, 3rd
Edition, ISBN:13:978-81-315-2529-6.
•Daniel Cohen, Introduction to Computer Theory, Wiley India, 2nd Edition, ISBN:
9788126513345.
•Kavi Mahesh, Theory of Computation: A Problem Solving Approach, 1st Edition,
Wiley-India, ISBN: 978-81-265-3311-4.
 Introduction

•Finite Automata accept all regular languages and only regular languages

•Many simple languages are non regular:

- {anbn : n = 0, 1, 2, …}
- {w : w a is palindrome}

and there is no finite automata that accepts them.

• Context-Free Languages are a larger class of languages that encompasses

all regular languages and many others, including the two above.
Context-Free Languages and Regular
Languages

Context-Free
Languages

Regular
Languages
 Formal Definition of a Grammar

Gramma
r:
Set of
variable
s Set of Start Set of
termina variabl production
l e s
symbols
 Language for the Grammar

Gramma
r: SaSb
Sє

Language of the
grammar:
 A Convenient Notation

We write:
for zero or more derivation
Instead of:steps

Generalizing:

Trivially:
 Formal Definition-CFG

Definition: A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple (V, T, P, S),

where:

• V is a set (each element in V is called nonterminal)

• T is an alphabet (each character in T is called terminal)
• P, the set of rules, is a subset of V × (T ∪ V)*
If (α,β) ∈ P, we write production α  β

β is called a sentential form

• S, the start symbol, is one of the symbols in V

 Example of Context-Free Grammar

production
s
P={SaSb,
Sє}

start
variable
terminal variable
s
s
 Context-Free Language

A language is context-free
if there is a context-free grammar

with
 Context-Free Language-Example 1

is a context-free language
since context-free grammar :

{SaSb | є}
generates
 Context-Free Language – Example 2
Context-free grammar :
{SaSa | bSb | є}
Example derivations:

Palindromes of even length

 Derivation and Parse Trees

Consider the following example grammar

with 5 productions:

SAB AaaA|ϵ BBb|ϵ

 Leftmost and Rightmost Derivation
Consider the following example grammar
with 5 productions:
SAB AaaA|ϵ BBb|ϵ
Leftmost derivation: for the string
aab

Rightmost derivation: for the string

aab
 Leftmost and Rightmost Derivation
SAB AaaA|ϵ BBb|ϵ
Leftmost
derivation:
Rightmost
derivation:

Give same
derivation
tree
ϵ ϵ
 Context Free Language for a CFG
Find the CFL generated for the given CFG.
1. SaSb | ab

L(G)={anbn | n>=1}

2. SaB|bA
Aa|aS|bAA
Bb|bS|aBB

L(G)={x|x containing equal no of a’s and b’s}

 CFG for a CFL
1. Write the grammar for generating strings over
Σ={a}, containing any(zero or more) number of a’s.
S  a | aS | ϵ

2. Find the CFG represented by the RE (a+b)*

S  aS | bS | ϵ

3. Write the grammar for all strings consisting of a’s

and b’s with atleast 2 a’s.
SAaAaA
AaA | bA | ϵ
 Ambiguous Grammar

A context-free grammar is
ambiguous
if there is a string which
has:

two different derivation trees

or
two leftmost derivations
(Two different derivation trees give two
different leftmost derivations and vice-
versa)
 Ambiguous Grammar – An Example

string has two derivation

trees
 Ambiguous Grammar – An Example

string has two leftmost

derivations
 Removing Ambiguity
Equivale
Ambiguou
nt
Non-
s
Ambiguous
Grammar
Grammar

generates the
same
language
Unique
derivation tree
and leftmost
derivation
For the string
a+a*a
 Simplification of Context Free Grammar
A CFG G can be simplified as:
1. Each variable and terminal of the CFG should appear in the
derivation if at least one word in the L(G).
2. There should not be any production of the form AB where A and
B are both non-terminals.

Simplification techniques are:

1.Removal of Useless Symbols
2.Removal of Unit Productions
3.Elimination of ∈ production

25
 Removal of Useless symbol
Ex.1 Consider the following grammar:
G={ (S,A),(1,0),P,S}
Where P consists of the following productions:
S1 0|0 S 1|1 S 0|A|S S
Simplify the grammar by removing the useless symbols if any.
Remove SA, as A is useless symbol.

S1 0|0 S 1|1 S 0|S S

26
 Removal of Useless symbol
Ex.2 Consider the following grammar:
G={ (S,A,B),(a),(1,0),P,S}
Where P consists of the following productions:
S A B | a
Aa
Simplify the grammar by removing the useless symbols if any.
B is useless, Remove B
SA | a
A a

27
 Removal of Unit Production
• A production rule of the form AB where A and B are both non-
terminals is called a unit production.
• All the other productions (including ∈ productions) are non-unit
productions.
Ex.1 Consider the following grammar:
G={ (A,B),(a,b),P,A}
Where P consists of :
AB, Ba | b
Simplify the grammar by removing the unit productions if any.
On eliminating unit production AB
Aa|b

28
 Removal of Unit Production
Ex.2Consider the following grammar:
S a | X b | a Y a | b | a a
X Y
Yb|X
Simplify the grammar by removing the unit productions if any.
Simplified grammar is:
Sa | Yb | aYa | b | aa
Y b

29
 Removal of ∈ - Production
A production of the form A ∈ where A is non-terminal is known as
∈ - Production.

Ex.1 Consider the following grammar,

S a S a | b S b | ∈
Simplify the grammar by eliminating ∈ - Productions if any.
Simplified grammar is G’:
S  aSa | bSb | aa | bb
G’=G-ϵ rules.
L(G’)=L(G)-{ϵ}

30
 Removal of ∈ - Production
Ex.2 Consider the following grammar,
S a | X b | a Y a
XY | ∈
Yb | X
Simplify the grammar by eliminating ∈ - Productions if any.
Simplified grammar is:
S  a | X b | a Y a | b | aa
X Y
Y b | X

31
 Chomsky Hierarchy

1. Type 0 grammar (Unrestricted Grammar)

2. Type 1 grammar (Context Sensitive Grammar)
3. Type 2 grammar (Context Free Grammar)
4. Type 3 grammar (Regular Grammar)
 Chomsky Hierarchy
• Type 3 grammar:
It is also called as regular grammar.
A α
Recognized by FSM.
Two types of Regular Grammar are:
1. Left Linear Grammar 2. Right Linear Grammar

• Type 2 grammar:
It is also called as context free grammar.
A  α where A is NT and α is sentential form.
Start symbol of the Grammar can also appear on RHS.
Recognized by PDA(Pushdown Automata)
 Chomsky Hierarchy
• Type 1 grammar:
It is context sensitive grammar or context dependent.
1. α  β where length of β is at least as much as the length of α
except S ∈.
2. The rule S ∈ is allowed only if start symbol S does not appear
on RHS.
3. Productions are of the form
α1Aα2 α1 β α2 (β ≠ ∈)
Recognized by TM(Turing Machine).

34
 Chomsky Hierarchy
• Type 0 grammar:
It is unrestricted grammar that is no restriction on production.
α  β (α ≠ ∈)
Recognized by TM(Turing machines)
These languages are known as Recursively Enumerable Languages.

35
 Normal Forms

There are certain standard ways of writing CFG.

They satisfy certain restrictions on the productions in the CFG.
Then the G is said to be in Normal forms.

1. Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)

2. Greibach Normal Form (GNF)
 Chomsky Normal Form(CNF)

A CFG is in CNF if every production is of the form

A a, where A is NT and a is T
A  BC where A,B and C are NTs
S  ∈ is in G if ∈ belongs to L(G).

When ∈ is in L(G),
we assume that S does not appear on the RHS of any production.
e.g. G is :
SAB| ∈
A a
Bb
 Construction of G in CNF

Step 1. Elimination of null productions and unit productions using

previous method.
Let the G is (V,T,P,S)
Step 2. Elimination of terminals on RHS.
Step 3. Restricting the number of variables on RHS.
 Reduce to CNF
1. Convert to CNF, SaSa | bSb | a | b | aa | bb
Adding Aa and Bb we can rewrite the grammar as
SASA|BSB|a|b|AA|BB
Aa, Bb
Only SASA and SBSB are not in CNF
For SASA we can write
SAR1, R1 SA
For SBSB we can write
SBR2, R2SB
Grammar in CNF is
SAR1|BR2|a|b|AA|BB
Aa, Bb
R1SA, R2SB
 Reduce to CNF
2. Convert to CNF,
SbA|aB, AbAA|aS|a, BaBB|bS|b
Add R1a, R2 b
Rewriting the grammar,
S R2 A| R1 B,
A R2 AA| R1 S|a,
BR1 BB| R2 S|b
R1a, R2b
AR2 AA and B R1 BB are not in CNF
Converted grammar in CNF is
SR2 A| R1 B,
AR2 R3| R1 S|a, R3AA
BR1 R4 | R2 S|b, R4 BB
 Greibach Normal Form

A context free grammar is said to be in Greibach

Normal Form if all productions are in the following
form:
A → αX
• A is a non terminal symbols
• α is a terminal symbol
• X is a sequence of non terminal
symbols.
It may be empty.
 Closure properties of CFL
CFLs are closed under:
Union
Concatenation
Kleene closure operator
Substitution
Homomorphism, inverse homomorphism
Reversal
CFLs are not closed under:
Intersection
Difference
Complementation

42
Push Down Automata
 Context-Free Languages

Context- Pushdow
Free n
Grammars Automat
a stac
k
automat
on
 Pushdown Automaton - PDA
Input
String
Stac
k

States
 Initial Stack Symbol

Stac Stac
k k

stac
to
k
p
head
botto special
mAppears
symbol
at time
0
 Formal definition of PDA
The PDA is as:
A =(Q,Σ, Г ,δ,q0,Z0,F)
Where
Q : A finite set of states
Σ : A finite set of input symbols
Г : A finite stack alphabet or pushdown symbols
δ : the transition function Q X(Σ U {ϵ } ) X Г to the set of finite
subsets of Q X Г*
q0: the start state
Z0 : the start symbol(pushdown symbol)
F : the set of accepting state or final states
 Transition Function

δ :The transition function is a triple δ(q,a,x)

where
1. q is a state in Q
2. a is either an input symbol in Σ or a =ϵ, the empty string,
3. x is a stack symbol, that is a member of Г.

The output of δ is a finite set of pairs (p,ɤ )

Where
p is the new state and
ɤ is the string of stack symbols that replaces x at the top of the
stack.
 Instantaneous Description of a PDA

The configuration of a PDA by a triple (q,w,ɤ) where

1. q is the state
2. w is the remaining input
3. ɤ is the stack contents
we show the top of the stack at the left end of ɤ and the
bottom at the right end.
Such a triple is called an Instantaneous
Description or ID of a PDA.
 δ(q, a, b) = (q, c)

stac
k to Repla
p ce
 δ(q, a, b) = (q, cb)

stac
k to Pus
p h
 δ(q, a, b) = (q, ϵ)

stac
k to Po
p p
 δ(q, a, b) = (q, b)

stac
k to No
p Change
 A PDA Example

A =(Q,Σ, Г ,δ,q0,Z0,F)
Q={q0, q1, q2}, Σ={a,b}, Г={Z0, a}, F={q2}, δ as below
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q2, Z0)
 Acceptance by PDA using final state
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q2, Z0)

For the string aabb

(q0, aabb , Z0) String aabb is
Ⱶ (q0, abb , aZ0) accepted, as final
Ⱶ (q0, bb , aaZ0) state q2 is
Ⱶ (q1, b , aZ0) reached on
reading string
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , Z0)
aabb completely
 Rejection by PDA
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q2, Z0)

For the string aabbb

(q0, aabbb , Z0) String aabbb is rejected as q1 is not
Ⱶ (q0, abbb , aZ0) final state and string aabbb is not
Ⱶ (q0, bbb , aaZ0) read completely.
Ⱶ (q1, bb , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, b , Z0)
Acceptance by PDA using null store or empty store
or empty stack
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, ∈)

For the string aabb

(q0, aabb , Z0) String aabb is
Ⱶ (q0, abb , aZ0) accepted, as
Ⱶ (q0, bb , aaZ0) stack is empty on
Ⱶ (q1, b , aZ0) reading string
aabb completely
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , Z0)
 Rejection by PDA
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, ∈)

For the string aabbb

(q0, aabbb , Z0) String aabbb is rejected as string
Ⱶ (q0, abbb , aZ0) aabbb is not read completely and
Ⱶ (q0, bbb , aaZ0) stack is not empty.
Ⱶ (q1, bb , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, b , Z0)
 Acceptance by PDA

Acceptance of input strings by PDA can be defined in terms of final

states or in terms of PDS(pushdown store).
Let A= (Q,Σ, Г ,δ,q0,Z0,F) be a PDA.

The set accepted by final state is defined by

T(A) ={w ϵ Σ* | (q0,w,Z0 ) Ⱶ * (qf , ʌ, α ) for some qf ϵ F and α ϵ Г*}

The set accepted by null store(or empty store)is defined by

N(A) = {w ϵ Σ* | (q0,w,Z0 ) Ⱶ * (q , ʌ, ʌ ) for some q ϵ Q }
 PDA for L={anbn | n>0 }
Logic:
W

Let
A= (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q0, Z0, F)
Q={q0,q1},
Σ={a,b},
Г={a,Z0},
F={q1}
is a PDA.
 δ (Transition Function) by Final State is
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1,∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, Z0)

Acceptance of a string aabb

(q0, aabb , Z0)
Ⱶ (q0, abb , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q0, bb , aaZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, b , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , Z0)
δ (Transition Function) by Empty stack or Empty
store or Null stack is
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 a a (q0,aa)
3 q0 b a (q1, ∈)
4 q1 b a (q1∈)
5 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, ∈)

Acceptance of a string aabb

(q0, aabb , Z0)
Ⱶ (q0, abb , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q0, bb , aaZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, b , aZ0)
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , Z0)
Ⱶ (q1, ∈ , ∈)
 Ex: PDA to accept language of palindromes with the
marker. i.e. L={xcxr | x ∈ {a,b}*}

Let
A= (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q0, Z0, F) is a PDA.
where
Q={q0,q1,qf},
Σ={a,b,c},
Г={a,b,Z0},
F={qf}
δ (Transition Function) by Final State is

Move no State input stack Move

symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 b Z0 (q0,bZ0)
3 q0 a a (q0,aa)
4 q0 b b (q0,bb)
5 q0 a b (q0, ab)
6 q0 b a (q0, ba)
7 q0 c Z0 (q1,Z0)
8 q0 c a (q1,a)
9 q0 c b (q1,b)
10 q1 a a (q1, ∈)
11 q1 b b (q1, ∈)
12 q1 ∈ Z0 (qf, Z0)
δ (Transition Function) by Empty stack or Empty
store or Null stack is
Move no State input stack Move
symbol
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 b Z0 (q0,bZ0)
3 q0 a a (q0,aa)
4 q0 b b (q0,bb)
5 q0 a b (q0, ab)
6 q0 b a (q0, ba)
7 q0 c Z0 (q1,Z0)
8 q0 c a (q1,a)
9 q0 c b (q1,b)
10 q1 a a (q1, ∈)
11 q1 b b (q1, ∈)
12 q1 ∈ Z0 (q1, ∈ )
 Examples for practice
1. PDA for L={anb2n | n>0}
2. PDA for L={anbncmdm | n, m>0 }
3. PDA for L={anbmcm | m, n>0}

66
 Deterministic and non-deterministic PDA

DPDA:
transition function is :
Q X Σ X Г  Q X Г*
e.g. δ(q,a,Z) is either empty or a singleton.
δ(q,a,Z) ≠ Ø

NPDA:
Q X Σ U {ϵ } X Г  finite subsets of Q X Г*
e.g. δ(q,a,Z) = {(p1,ɤ1) ,(p2, ɤ2)…..(pm, ɤm)}
DPDA and NPDA
 NPDA and DPDA

• For every NPDA, there may not exist an equivalent DPDA.

• The NPDA can accept any CFL, while DPDA is a special case of
NPDA that accepts only a subset of the CFLs accepted by the
NPDA.

• Thus, DPDA is less powerful than NPDA.

 NPDA to accept language of palindromes without the
marker.

Let
A= (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q0, Z0, F) is a PDA.
where
Q={q0,q1,qf},
Σ={a,b},
Г={a,b,Z0},
F={qf}
 NPDA to accept language of all palindrome strings

Move no State input stack symbol Move

1 q0 a Z0 {(q0,aZ0), (q1, Z0)}
2 q0 b Z0 {(q0,bZ0), (q1, Z0)}
3 q0 a a {(q0,aa),(q1,a)}
4 q0 b a {(q0,ba), (q1,a)}
5 q0 a b {(q0, ab), (q1,b)}
6 q0 b b {(q0, bb), (q1,b)}
7 q0 ∈ Z0 {(q1,Z0)}
8 q0 ∈ a {(q1,a)}
9 q0 ∈ b {(q1,b)}
10 q1 a a {(q1, ∈)}
11 q1 b b {(q1, ∈)}
12 q1 ∈ Z0 {(qf, Z0)}
 CFG to PDA
Theorem: If L is a CFL then we can construct a PDA A accepting L by empty
store ie. L=N(A).
Proof: We construct A by making use of productions in G.
Let L=L(G) where G=(V, T, P, S) is a CFG.
We construct PDA A as
A= (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q, Z0,F)
where Σ=T
Г is (V U T)
Z0 = S
F=Ф
δ is defined as
R1 : δ(q, ∈, A) = {(q, α ) | A α is in P}
R2 : δ(q, a, a) = {(q, ∈ ) } for every a in Σ.
 CFG to PDA
1 .Construct a PDA for the CFG
S 0BB
B0S | 1S |0
Test whether 0104 is in N(A).

We construct PDA A as
A = (Q, Σ, Г , δ, q, Z0,F)
Q = {q}
Σ = {0,1} Move State input stack symbol Move
Г = {S, B, 0, 1} no
Z0 = S 1 q ∈ S {(q,0BB)}

F=Ф 2 q ∈ B {(q,0S), (q,1S), (q,0)}

3 q 0 0 {(q, ∈)}
4 q 1 1 {(q,∈)}
 CFG to PDA
1 .Construct a PDA for the CFG
S 0BB
B0S | 1S |0
Test whether 0104 is in N(A).

2. Convert the grammar

SaSb | A
AbSa |S| ∈

To a PDA that accepts the same language by empty stack.

 PDA to CFG
For the given PDA A = ({q0,q1}, {0,1}, {X, Zo}, δ, q0, Zo)
with δ as:
δ(q0,0,Z0) = (q0,XZo) (1a)
δ(q0,0,X) = (q0,XX) (1b)
δ(q0,1,X) = (q1, ∈) (2a)
δ(q1,1,X) = (q1, ∈) (2b)
δ(q1, ∈,X) = (q1, ∈) (2c)
δ(q1, ∈,Zo) = (q1, ∈) (2d)

We convert into CFG as follows

Σ = {0,1} (same as sigma from the PDA)
1. Define Start Symbol "S".
2. [pXq] where p& q are states in Q and X is from Г
V = (S, [q0,X,q0], [q0,X,q1], [q1,X,q0], [q1,X,q1], [q0,Zo,q0], [q0,Zo,q1],
[q1,Zo,q0], [q1,Zo,q1])
 PDA to CFG
For the productions the rules are

1. For starting symbol S we write productions S  [q0,Zo,p]

E.g.
S  [q0,Zo,q0]
S  [q0,Zo,q1]

2. Now, We will derive forward, only building productions for variables that can
be derived.
Let δ(q0,a,X) = (r, y1y2y3y4…yk)
Then (q0 X rk) a [r y1 r1], [r1 y2 r2], [r2 y3 r3], ….. [rk-1 yk rk],
For all states r1,r2,……rk
δ(q0,a,X) = (r, ∈) then [q0 X r]  a

δ(q0, ∈,X) = (r, ∈) then [q0 X r]  ∈

 PDA to CFG
Example:
 PDA to CFG
Solution:
 Applications

Context Free Grammar (CFG) is of great practical importance.

It is used for the following purposes-

• For defining programming languages

• For parsing the program by constructing a syntax tree
• For translation of programming languages
• For describing arithmetic expressions
• For construction of compilers
Thank You…!!!

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