THE CELL

The cell is the unit of biological structure and

function.
Cells vary in both size and form 'Some are
very small (1 micron or less in diameter) such
as those of parasites, while others may be
several inches in diameter like those of the
fertlized eggs of birds. Some are long (nerve
cells), some are rounded (red blood cells).
THE CELL THEORY
Robert Hooke first discovered cells in cork in 1665
A. von Leeuwenhoek first observed red blood cells,
sperm, and "animalcules" in pond water using high
quality single lenses.
T. Schwann and M. Schleiden, first stated that cells
are the elementary particies of both plants and
animals (1830)
R. Virchow, first wrote that "Every animal appears as a
sum of vital units, each of which bears in itself the
complete characteristics of life" He siso predicted in
the 1850's that "all cells come from cells"
Three principles of the modem cell theory:
 Every living organism is made up of one or
more cells
 The smallest living organisms are single cells,
and cells are the function units of multicellular
organisms
 All cells arise from preexisting cell
STUDY OF CELLS
The study of cell structure and activity is called cytology.

Light microscope is the most common type of

microscope that is used in the thaly of cell structures.
Ligts microcupes provide a wide range of images,
depending on how the specimen Huminated and
whether has been stained.
Electron microscopes use beams of electrons instead
of light. The negatively charged alectrons are focused
by magnetic fields rather than by conventional lenses.
Transmission electron microscopes (TEM's) pass
elec trons through a thin, specimen, and can reveal
minute subcellular structures including organelles and
cell membranes. Scanning electron microscopes
(SEM's) bounce electrons off specimen that have been
coated with metals, and provide three-dimensional
mages SEM's can be used to view structures ranging in
size from entre insects down to cells and even
organelles
PROKARYOTIC
AND
EUKARYOTIC
CELLS
Prokaryotic cells are usually very small (less than 5 um in length),
with a relatively simple internal structure Most prokaryotic cells are
surrounded by a relatively st cell wall. The materials of the cell wall are
secreted by the cell itself. Many bacteria live in fluid environments,
from ponds to the human blood stream, from which water tends to
enter the bacterial cell. The cytoplasm of most prokaryotic cells is
relatively homogeneous in appearance (although some photosynthetic
bacteria have elaborale internal membranes). The DNA is usually
coiled, attached to the plasma membrane. and concentrated in a
region of the cell called the nucleold. It is not physicaly separated from
the rest of the cytoplasm by a membrane.
Eukaryotic cells differ in many respects from prokaryotic cells. In
addition to being larger than prokaryotic cells (usually more than 10
jum in diameter), eukaryote cells contain a variety of membranous
organelles that lend structural and functional organization to the cell
interior. The material within the plasma membrane of a eu karyotic
cell is divided into the nucleus, an organelle consisting of a double
layer of membrane that encloses the genetic material, and the
cytoplasm which includes everything else. The cytoplasm in turn is
composed of several types of organelles occupying as much as half
the volume of the cell, and a fluid matrix, the cytosol (literally, cell
solution), in which the organelles reside.
The cytosol is an aqueous solu of salts, sugars, amino acids,
proteins, fatty acids, nucleotides, and other matenss Giving
shape and organization to the cytoplasm is a network of protein
fibers
the cytoskeleton. Many of the organelles and even individual
molecules of the cytoplasm are thought to be attached to the
cytoskeleton. Among the five kingdoms, only the Monerans are
prokaryotes. All other kingdoms Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia
are eukaryotes. The following description is restricted to the eukaryotic
cells of which all animals are composed.
 CELL
STRUCTURE
All animal cells have at least
three components: plasma
membrane, cytoplasm and
nucleus (Fig. 3.1)
Plasma membrane (also called the cell
membrane). This is a double layer of
phospholipids in which are embedded different
kinds of proteins, it separates the cell from the
surrounding environment and acts as a selective
filter for materials attempting to pass into or out
of the cell. in some cells such as nerve cells, the
plasma membrane also is involved in
intercellular communication.
Nucleus. The most prominent organelle is the spherical or ovoid nucleus
enclosed within two membranes to form the double-layered nuclear envelope
(nuclear mem- brane). At intervals, the nuclear envelope is perforated by pores, to
allow continuity between the nuclear contents and the cytoplasm surrounding the
nucleus. The nucleus contains chromatin and one or more dense, granular
structures, the nucleoll The chromatin consists of DNA and histone and
nonhistone protein, which cames the 15genetic information of the cell. Nucleoli
are specialized parts of certain chromosom that carry multiple copies of the DNA
information to synthesize ribosomal RNA. After transenption from the nucleotar
DNA, the ribosomal RNA combines several different proteins to form a ribosome,
detaches from the nucleolus, and passes through nuclear
Cytoplasm The cytoplasm, also referred to as cytosol,
contains many organelles such as mitochondra, golgi
complexes, and centrioles Mitochondria are present in almost
all animal cells. They are spherical to rod-shaped structures
from 0.2 to 7 um in size, It varies in number according to cell
type. The mitochondrion is composed of a double membrane.
The outer membrane is smooth, whereas the inner membrane
is folded into numerous platelike or fingerlike projections called
cristae. Mitochondria are often called "powerhouses of the cell"
because enzymes
located on the cristae carry out the energy yielding
steps of aerobic metabolism. The most important
energy storage molecule of all cells. ATP, is produced
in the mitochondria The mitochondria are self-
replicating. They have tiny circular chromosome
which contains DNA, specifying some, but not all of
the proteins of the mitochondrion
 The Ribosomes on the rough ER are responsible for
synthesizing proteins, including membrane and secretory
proteins. The ER contributes to the synthesis of its own
membranes and produces materials for other cellular
structures. Some of the membrane synthesized in the ER
moves inward to replace the nuclear membrane, while
other portions form the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and
the plasma membrane.
The Golgi complex is a specialized set of membranous sacs
that performs three key functions:

1. Sorting and Targeting : It separates proteins and lipids

received from the ER, directing them to their appropriate
destinations, such as lysosomes or the plasma membrane.
2. Modification : It modifies some molecules, such as adding
sugars to proteins to form glycoproteins.
3. Packaging and Transport: It packages these materials
into vesicles, which are then transported to other parts of the
cell or secreted outside the cell.
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of
interconnected tubes and channels in the cytoplasm, found in
eukaryotic cells. It exists in two forms: rough ER and smooth
ER. The rough ER is studded with ribosomes, while the
smooth ER lacks ribosomes. These structural differences
The cytoplasm,also known asreflect theirvarious
cytosol, contains distinct functions
organelles,such as mitochondria,golgi complexes and
centrioles.

The cytoplasm ,also known as cytosol, contains

various organelles,such as mitochondria,golgi complexes
and centrioles.
Mitochondria are present in nearly all animal cells
and are typically spherical orrof-shaped.Their size
number varydepending on the cell type. Mitochondria
are self-replicating and contain their own circular DNA,
which encodes some, though not all, of their proteins.
This DNA is essential for mitochondrial function and the
production of energy through cellular respiration.
Cell Division and Asexual
Reproduction
Cell division enables a single cell, typically a fertilized egg, to
develop into the multicellular bodies of animals. It also forms the
foundation of asexual reproduction, where offspring are produced
from a single parent without requiring the union of male and
female species. This method is common in unicellular organisms
such as paramecia, amoebas, and yeasts.
Cytoskeleton and it's funstions
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers to which most
organelles are attached. It consists of microtubules, intermediate
filaments, and microfilaments. The cytoskeleton provides structural
support, maintains cell shape, enables locomotion, and facilitates the
movement of organelles within cells. Microfilaments, made of the
protein actin, are thin structures initially identified in muscle cells, where
they enable contraction. Proteins like myosin interact with actin to
regulate its behavior and facilitate contraction in muscle and other cells.
Microtubules are tubular structures made of the protein tubulin, larger
than microfilaments. They are crucial for chromosome movement during
cell division, intracellular organization, architecture, and transport.
Microtubules form key parts of cilia and flagella and originate from the
centrosome, which contains a pair of centrioles. Each centriole is a
short cylinder
Microtubules with
are tubular nine triplets
structures made of theof microtubules,
protein positioned
tubulin, larger than microfilaments.at right
They are crucial for
angles
chromosome to movement
each other, and
during cell theyintracellular
division, replicate beforearchitecture,
organization, cell division.
and transport. Microtubules
form key parts of cilia and flagella and originate from the centrosome, which contains a pair of centrioles. Each
Microfilaments, composed
centriole is a short cylinder of at
with nine triplets least fivepositioned
of microtubules, different proteins,
at right and
angles to each other, and they
replicate before cell division.
intermediate filaments are distinct structures. Intermediate
filaments are typically found in specific cell types and connect to
plasma membrane proteins. They also anchor actin microfilaments
in muscle cells, preventing damage during contractions.
Micro filaments, composed of at least five different proteins, and
intermediate filaments are distinct structures. Intermediate filaments
are typically found in specific cell types and connect to plasma
membrane proteins. They also anchor actin microfilaments in
muscle cells, preventing damage during contractions.

Most eukaryotic cells contain vacuoles, membrane-bound sacs that can be

temporary or permanent. They serve various functions, including storing food
or waste, eliminating excess water, and providing structural support to the cell.
Cilia and flagella are plasma membrane extensions with a 9+2
microtubule arrangement, formed by basal bodies located beneath the
membrane. Each basal body consists of nine triplets of short microtubules,
with two members of each triplet forming the microtubule pairs in the cilium
or flagellum. Their movement is powered by ATP, enabling microtubule
sliding. Continuous motion requires abundant ATP, supplied by nearby
mitochondria.
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