Chapter 2

Network Models
Protocol Layering – OSI Model - TCP/IP Protocol
Suite.

2.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Network Models

■Network Architecture:
■A) Hardware: at the core of any
network; e.g.) Tx/Rx devices, modems,
codecs, physical links, switches

■B) Software: to derive the core H/W to

communicate end users. The S/W is so
complex as its task.

2.2
 ■Hence it is divided into subtasks each of
which is confined to a set of related
processes to perform a specific function.

■--Each subtask S/W is called a “ Layer”

■--Layers are stacked over each other
forming
the net model stack, e.g., ISO, TCP/IP

2.3
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.4
 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.5
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

2.6
 Layered Architecture
■OSI model is composed of seven ordered
layers.

■Figure 2.3 shows the layers involved when

message is sent from device A to device B

■Each layer defines a family of function

distinct from those of the other layers.

■The OSI model allows complete

interoperability.
2.7
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.8
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI
model

2.9
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI
model

2.10
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI
model

2.11
 Encapsulation

■ “Encapsulation”: Each layer has its own

PDU(Protocol Data Unit) that’s passes (as a
parameter) to the layer below.

■ which in turn adds a “ header ”(at layer 2 also

adds trailer”) before assign to the next layer
(except the physical layer).

2.12
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.13
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.14
 1) Physical Layer
Physical Layer: PDU , bit stream.

Functions:
■a) Physical characteristics of interfaces and
medium.
■b) Bit representation: encoding/decoding.
■c) Data rate: (b/s) bit TX duration.
■d) Bits synch: sender and receiver clock synch
and same data rate.
■e) Line configuration: Point-to-point, Multipoint
■f) Physical Topology: Mesh, ring, bus, and hybrid.
■g) Transfer mode: Simplex, F/d, and H/d

2.15
 Figure 2.6 Data link
layer

2.16
 2) Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer: PDU frame with
header/trailer
■Functions:
■a. Framing
■b. Physical Addressing: Sender/receiver
addresses in the frame header.
■c. Flow Control: To prevent fast sender from
flooding a slower receiver with frames.
■d. Error Control: To Increase physical layer
reliability by adding mechanism to detect and
ReTx damages and lost frames. (Trailer)
■e. Access Control: Control the access to the
physical medium among all connected
devices.
2.17
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.18
 3) Network Layer
Network Layer: PDU packets (headers
only)
■Responsible for the source to destination
delivery of packet, possibly across multiple
networks.
■Address logical IP address
■a. Source host system to destination host system
delivery, utilizing the data link layer for peer-to-peer
delivery.

■b. Physical addresses at the D.L are not enough; we

need to add logical addressing in the packet header,
of the sender and receiver.

2.19
 Network Layer (cont..)

■c. Routing: To route packets over

the subnet cloud of routers and
switches, make the optimal
routing decisions (src-
destination)
■d. Internetworking: resolve any
Net protocols conflicts while
moving in the subnet.

2.20
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.21
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.22
 4) Transport Layer:

■The most important layer since it

abstracts the complete details of the
subnet to the user.

■It communicates a meaningful data

unit called message (group of related
packets) between users over the
subnet trying for the most optimal
utilization of the subnet.
2.23
 Transport Layer: (cont..)
■b) Segmentation and reassembly: of
segments=> packets

A Process (user) message is divided into

segments (if needed) each with n seg.

Sequence number to aid in assembly (incorrect

order) related segments into the original message
at the destination/transportation layer.

2.24
 Transport Layer: (cont..)
c) Connection control:

1) Connection oriented - Reliable service

(TCP)

2) Connectionless - Unreliable service

(UDP)

d) Flow Control: As in the data Link Layer but

all the message level “end-users”.

2.25
 Transport Layer: (cont..)

e) Error Control: Like the DLL, but

process_to_process delivery of
messages.

■Errors(damaged, loss or
duplicate)cause reTransmission of
messages.

2.26
Figure 2.12 Session
layer

2.27
 5) Session Layer:

■ Session Layer: ( N/w dialog

controller)
■It established, maintain and
synchronizes the interaction among
communicating system.
■a. Dialog Controls H/Duplex or F/Duplex
■b. Synchronization: Checkpoints are
added to data streams for dividing into
units of independent ACK.
■Communication robustness in case of
2.28
 Figure 2.13 Presentation
layer

2.29
 6) Presentation Layer
Presentation Layer:
■a. Translation: ASCII EBCDIC
(Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code).
Abstract syntax notation (ASN).

■b. Encryption: To secure information

Tx for privacy

■c. Compression: For efficient

utilization of bandwidth.
2.30
 Figure 2.14 Application
layer

2.31
 7) Application Layer:

■ Application Layer:
■1) Virtual terminal”putty”to allow
remote logins (emulations)
■2) File transfer , access, and
management
■3) Mail Service,
■4) Directory service.
■SMTP, FTP, HTTP, DNS, SNMP,
TELNET.
2.32
 Figure 2.15 Summary of
layers

2.33
 Protocols Used In The Each
Layer

2.34
 OSI

2.35
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those
in the OSI model.

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four

layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.

However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the

TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.36
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.37
 1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network
communications. This layer is responsible for
generating the data and requesting connections.
It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network
Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Network Layer:

■ Internet Protocol (IP) is used best-effort-delivery

unreliable connectionless datagram protocol.

■ At the network layer there are other protocol to

help the IP:

■ a) Address Resolution Protocol: physical (MAC)

logical (IP)
2.38
 ■Address translation

■b) Internet Control Msg Protocol (ICMP):

Help in reporting any failure/congestion of

a subnet part(s), aiding in the subnet
robustness.

■c) Internet Group Msg Protocol (IGMP)

Single source broadcasts to multi group
destinations.

2.39
 Transport Layer: Proc-to-Proc client/server

A) User Datagram Protocol: UDP

--- Connectionless unreliable Transport

Protocol,
with very limited error checking
(checksum)

--- No error/ flow control

2.40
 B) Transmission Control Protocol: TCP

■---Reliable connection oriented (stream) transport

protocol.

■ ---Establishes connection src_dest, before data

Tx.

■---Ordered/ ACK segment Tx with segment

numbers.

C) Stream Control Tx Protocol:

SCTP Connection oriented reliable transport

protocol to supports voice IP (Internet telephony)
2.41combining the best of UDP and TCP
2.42
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.43
 Figure 2.17 Addresses in
TCP/IP

2.44
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in
TCP/IP

2.45
 Physical Address
■Physical address (Link address) is the
address of a node as defined by its LAN or
WAN.

■Lowest level address.

■Have authority over the LAN or WAN n/w.

■The size and format of these addresses

vary depending on the n/w.

2.46■Eg : Ethernet uses 6-byte physical address.

 Logical Address

■Necessary for universal

communications that are
independent of underlying physical
networks.
■Different networks can have different
address format.
■An address defined in network layer.
■Logical address in the internet is 32-
bit address
2.47
 Port addresses

■A method is needed to label the different

processes .( addresses are needed)

■Process communicating with another

process.

EX: Comp. A can communicate with comp.C

by using TELNET. At the same time comp .A
communicate with comp. B by using FTP

2.48
 Example
2.1
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.

2.49
 Figure 2.19 Physical
addresses

2.50
 Example
2.2

Local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.51
 Figure 2.21 Port
addresses

2.52
 Example
2.5
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one
decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

2.53
2.54
 Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

2.55
 Exercise 1
■ Figure 1, shows an internet path between two
hosts involves a hop across network A, a
packet-switching network, to a router and then
another hop across packet-switching network
B. Suppose that packet switching network A
carries the packet between the first host and
the router over a two-hop path involving one
intermediate packet switch. Suppose also that
the second network is an Ethernet LAN.
■ Sketch the sequence of IP and non-IP packets
and frames that are generated as an IP packet
goes from host 1 to host 2.

2.56
 Figure 1

2.57