Research Methodology

Unit No 3: Sampling Design And Data

Collection

Faculty Name :Dr. Ashwini Kadam

Unit no 2:Sampling Design And Data Collection

Sampling Design
Meaning of Sampling

The act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for

the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population.

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number

of observations are taken from a larger population.

Typically, the population for market research is very large. Making an enumeration of
the whole population is practically impossible. The sample usually represents a
manageable size from this population

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CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A complete

enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be
presumed that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element of chance
is left and highest accuracy is obtained.

When field studies are undertaken in practical life, considerations of time and cost
almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few
items. The respondents selected should be as representative of the total population
as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section. The selected respondents
constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection process is called
‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.

Lecture 1: Sampling Design And Data

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Population definition

A population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic
one wishes to understand.

Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information from
everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative
sample (or subset) of that population.

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Sample Size

This is an important issue. Numerical techniques for determining sample sizes will

be described later, but suffice it to say that the larger the sample size is, the more

accurate we can expect the sample estimates to be.

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Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

Two major types of error can arise when a sample of observations is taken from a
population.

1.Sampling Errors

2.Non-sampling errors

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Sampling Error

Sampling error refers to differences between the sample and the population that
exist only because of the observations that happened to be selected for the sample.

Another way to look at this is: the differences in results for different samples (of the
same size) is due to sampling error:

E.g. Two samples of size 10 of 1,000 households. If we happened to get the highest
income level data points in our first sample and all the lowest income levels in the
second, this is a consequence of sampling error. Increasing the sample size will
reduce this type of error.

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Non-Sampling Error

Non-sampling error are more serious and are due to mistakes made in the
acquisition of data or due to the sample observations being selected improperly.

There are three types of non-sampling errors:

Errors in data acquisition,

Nonresponse errors, and

Selection bias.

Increasing the sample size will not reduce this type of error.

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Sample Design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.

It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting
items for the sample.

Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the
sample i.e., the size of the sample.

Sample design is determined before data are collected.

There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

1. Sample design should be a representative sample

2. Sample design should have small sampling error

3. Sample design should be economically viable

4. Sample design should have marginal systematic bias

5. Results obtained from the sample should be generalized and applicable to the

whole universe

Lecture 1: Sampling Design And Data

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STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

1. Type of universe

2. Sampling unit

3. Source list

4. Size of sample

5. Parameters of interest

6. Budgetary constraint:

7. Sampling procedure

Lecture 1: Sampling Design And Data

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING…….

Lecture 1: Sampling Design And Data

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Simple Random Sampling

2. Systematic Sampling,

3. Stratified Random Sampling,

4. Cluster Sampling

5. Multistage Sampling.

6. Multiphase sampling

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Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a sampling technique where every item in the

population has an even chance and likelihood of being selected in the sample.

Here the selection of items completely depends on chance or by probability and

therefore this sampling technique is also sometimes known as a method of chances.

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Simple Random Sampling Example

An organization has 500 employees. We want to extract a sample of 100 from them.
Step 1: Make a list of all the employees working in the organization. (as mentioned above there are 500
employees in the organization, the list must contain 500 names).

Step 2: Assign a sequential number to each employee (1,2,3…n). This is your sampling frame (the list from
which you draw your simple random sample).

Step 3: Figure out what your sample size is going to be. (In this case, the sample size is 100).

Step 4: Use a random number generator to select the sample, using your sampling frame (population size)
from Step 2 and your sample size from Step 3. For example, if your sample size is 100 and your population is
500, generate 100 random numbers between 1 and 500.

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Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method where the elements are

chosen from a target population by selecting a random starting point and selecting
other members after a fixed ‘sampling interval’. Sampling interval is calculated by
dividing the entire population size by the desired sample size.
Let’s take an example

where you want to form a sample of 500 individuals out of a population of 5000,
you’d have to number each and every person in the population.

Once the numbering is done, the researcher can select a number randomly, for
instance, 5. The 5th individual will be the first to be a part of the systematic sample.
After that, the 10th member will be added into the sample, so on and so forth (15th,
25th, 35, 45th, and members till 4995).

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Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a type of probability sampling using which

a research organization can branch off the entire population into multiple non-
overlapping, homogeneous groups (strata) and randomly choose final members
from the various strata for research which reduces cost and improves efficiency.

Members in each of these groups should be distinct so that every member of all
groups get equal opportunity to be selected using simple probability.

Stratified random sampling is an extremely productive method of sampling in

situations where the researcher intends to focus only on specific strata from the
available population data.

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e.g. Age, socioeconomic divisions, nationality, religion, educational achievements
and other such classifications fall under stratified random sampling.

Let’s consider a situation where a research team is seeking opinions about religion
amongst various age groups. Instead of collecting feedback from all Indian citizens,
random samples of around 10000 can be selected for research. These 10000 citizens
can be divided into strata according to age,i.e, groups of 18-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59,
and 60 and above. Each stratum will have distinct members and number of
members.

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Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is defined as a sampling method where multiple clusters of people

are created from a population where they are indicative of homogeneous
characteristics and have an equal chance of being a part of the sample.

e.g. Geographic segmentation is the most commonly used cluster sample.

The list of all the agricultural farms in a village or a district may not be easily
available but the list of village or districts are generally available. In this case, every
farm in sampling unit and every village or district is the cluster.

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Multistage Sampling

The Multistage Sampling is the probabilitysampling technique wherein

the sampling is carried out in several stages such that the sample size gets reduced
at each stage.

Multistage sampling divides large populations into stages to make the sampling
process more practical. A combination of stratified sampling or cluster
sampling and simple random sampling is usually used.

example, If the government wants to take a sample of 10,000 households residing in

Gujarat state.

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• Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are
embedded one in the other.

• First stage, random number of districts chosen in all states.

• Followed by random number of talukas, villages.

• Then third stage units will be houses.

• All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are surveyed.

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Multiphase Sampling

A multiphase sampling is a sampling procedure in which it collects some information

from the whole unit sample and additional information also is collected, at the same time
or by later. Usually the additional information is collected to provide more
detail information about the sample.

The multiphase sampling is Known as “two phase sampling” where double or

more phase sampling procedures can be done in at the same time or by later. The first
sampling is to collect “basic information” from a large sample of unit and then followed
by the second sampling collects more about “detailed information”.

Example : This kind of technique can be used as handful way to resolve the issue of
the insufficient budget to collect entire information about the whole population or even
creating an excessive burden toward the respondent to answer the question

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example

As instance, there is a situation where a man is responsible to carry out a health

survey on participants regarding some basic question about their diet, smoking habits,
exercise routines and alcohol consumption.

Meanwhile, another survey is required to collects detailed information of the respondent

by asking them to perform physical tests such as running on a treadmill or having their
blood pressure and cholesterol level to be measured.

By filling out the questionnaires and interviewing participant is relatively economized

procedure. Hence, the best approach to conduct this survey by approaching this two
phase sampling. In the first phase, the interviews are performed on an appropriately
sized sample. Then a smaller sample is drawn from that sample.The second sample will
be continued in the medical test

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Non-probability Sampling –

Non-probability sampling is also known as deliberate or purposive sampling. Under

this sampling, the items for sample are deliberately chosen by the researcher and
the researchers choice concerning the choice of items remains supreme.

A core characteristic of non-probability sampling techniques is that samples are

selected based on the subjective judgement of the researcher, rather than random
selection

For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a
particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from
subjects to refer other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a subjective
sample to carry out the study.

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NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING…….

1. Accidental/ Convenience/ Opportunity/ Availability/ Haphazard/ Grab Sampling

2. Quota Sampling

3. Judgment/ Subjective/ Purposive Sampling

4. Snowball Sampling.

Lecture 1: Sampling Design And Data

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1. Convenience Sampling (Accidental Sampling)

Accidental sampling (sometimes known as grab, convenience, or opportunity sampling)

is a type of non-probability sampling that involves the sample being drawn from that part
of the population that is close to hand. That is a sample population selected because it is
readily available and convenient. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

Convenience sampling (also called accidental sampling or grab sampling) is where you
include people who are easy to reach. For example, you could survey people from:
Your workplace,
Your school,
A club you belong to,
The local mall.

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Example

A gaming company that wants to know how one of their games is doing in the
market one day after its release. Its analyst may choose to create an online survey
on Facebook to rate that game. The major challenge of this approach will be
reaching to the people who play games. As social media is a vast place, it's always
difficult to collect samples from the population of interest. Most people may not be
interested or take the survey seriously while completing it, which results in sampling
error. The survey may be improved greatly if the analyst posts it to fan pages
dedicated to game-lovers. He may find a lot more people in that group who would be
inclined to judge and rate the game critically.

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Quota Sampling

A sampling method of gathering representative data from a group. As opposed to

random sampling, quota sampling requires that representative individuals are
chosen out of a specific subgroup.

For example, a researcher might ask for a sample of 100 females, or 100 individuals
between the ages of 20-30.

For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and 60. This means that individuals can put a demand on who
they want to sample (targeting).

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Subjective or Purposive or Judgment Sampling:

In this sampling, the sample is selected with definite purpose in view and the choice
of the sampling units depends entirely on the discretion and judgment of the
investigator. This sampling suffers from drawbacks of favoritism and nepotism
depending upon the beliefs and prejudices of the investigator and thus does not give
a representative sample of the population. This sampling method is seldom used
and cannot be recommended for general use since it is often biased due to element
of subjectivity on the part of the investigator. However, if the investigator is
experienced and skilled and this sampling is carefully applied, then judgment
samples may yield valuable results.

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Snowball Sampling:

Snowball sampling is a method in which a researcher identifies one member of some

population of interest, speaks to him/her, and then asks that person to identify others in
the population that the researcher might speak to. This person is then asked to refer the
researcher to yet another person, and so on.

This sampling technique is used against low incidence or rare populations. Sampling is a
big problem in this case, as the defined population from which the sample can be drawn
is not available. Therefore, the process sampling depends on the chain system of
referrals. Although small sample sizes and low costs are the clear advantages of snowball
sampling, bias is one of its disadvantages. The referral names obtained from those
sampled in the initial stages may be similar to those initially sampled. Therefore, the
sample may not represent a cross-section of the total population. It may also happen that
visitors to the site or interviewers may refuse to disclose the names of those whom they
know.

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Example-

Govt asked infected covid -19 People for how people came into contact with you in

order to reveal the sample of infected people to make them quarantine from

Population to break the chain of Pandemic spread.

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Data Collection
Data Collection

While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The
primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus
happen to be original in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those
which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process. The researcher would have to decide which
sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he will
have to select one or the other method of data collection. The methods of collecting
primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected,
while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of
compilation

Lecture 1: Sampling Design And Data

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PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHOD

1. Observation Method

2. Survey method

3. Focus group

4. Projective techniques

5. Case study methodsw

Lecture 1: Sampling Design And Data

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Observation Method

The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies
relating to behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this
sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific
tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation
method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation
without asking from the respondent.

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Survey method

Four methods by which we can collect data through survey method.

1.Telephonic Interview
2.Personal interview
3.Mail Interview
4.Depth Interview

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Focus group

Focus groups are interactive discussion

groups. They are preferred over personal
interviews because of their interactive effect:
statements of one participant can generate
comments by others. Typically, several
groups are run and then the results are
interpreted judgementally by observers and
the moderator. Participants are not forced to
give a fixed response. This lack of structure
makes the data collection more complex
since further interpretation from the
researcher is needed to “translate” it into
qualitative and quantitative data (van Kleef et
al., 2006).

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Projective techniques

They are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have been
developed by the psychologist and use projection of respondents for inferring the
underline motives, urges etc.

Important techniques are

1.Word Association Test

2.Completion test

3.Construction Test

4.Expression Test.

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COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished

data. Usually published data are available in:
(a) various publications of the central, state are local
governments;
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of
international bodies and their subsidiary organisations;
(c) technical and trade journals;
(d) books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) reports and publications of various associations connected
with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;

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COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA contd……

f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities,

economists, etc. in different fields; and

(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and

other sources of published information.

The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found

in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and
research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other
public/ private individuals and organisations.

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Primary Data Secondary Data
Definition
Primary data are those that are collected for Secondary data refer to those data that
the first time. have already been collected by some other
person.
Originality
These are original because these are These are not original because someone
collected by the investigator for the first else has collected these for his own
time. purpose.
Nature of Data
These are in the form of raw materials. These are in the finished form.
Reliability and Suitability
These are more reliable and suitable for the These are less reliable and less suitable as
enquiry because these are collected for a someone else has collected the data which
particular purpose. may not perfectly match our purpose.
Time and Money
Collecting primary data is quite expensive Secondary data requires less time and
both in the terms of time and money. money; hence it is economical.
Precaution and Editing
No particular precaution or editing is Both precaution and editing are essential as
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required while using the primary data as secondary data were collected by someone
 Qualitative and
Quantitative Data
collection

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Quantitative data collection

What is quantitative data?

Quantitative data refers to any information that can be quantified. If it can be

counted or measured, and given a numerical value, it’s quantitative data.

Quantitative data can tell you “how many,” “how much,” or “how often”

for example, how many people attended last week’s webinar? How much revenue

did the company make in 2019? How often does a certain customer group use online

banking?

To analyze and make sense of quantitative data, you’ll conduct statistical analyses.

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Qualitative data collection

Unlike quantitative data, qualitative data cannot be measured or counted. It’s descriptive,
expressed in terms of language rather than numerical values.
Researchers will often turn to qualitative data to answer “Why?” or “How?” questions.

For example, if your quantitative data tells you that a certain website visitor abandoned their
shopping cart three times in one week, you’d probably want to investigate why—and this might
involve collecting some form of qualitative data from the user. Perhaps you want to know how a
user feels about a particular product; again, qualitative data can provide such insights. In this
case, you’re not just looking at numbers; you’re asking the user to tell you, using language, why
they did something or how they feel.

Qualitative data also refers to the words or labels used to describe certain characteristics or
traits—for example, describing the sky as blue or labeling a particular ice cream flavor as
vanilla.

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 Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

1. Qualitative data uses methods like 1. Quantitative data uses methods as

interviews, participant observation, focus questionnaires, surveys, and structural
on a grouping to gain collective observations to gain collective
information. information.

2. Data format used in it is textual. 2. Data format used in it is numerical.

Datasheets are contained of audio or Datasheets are obtained in the form of
video recordings and notes. numerical values.

3. Qualitative data talks about the 3. Quantitative data talks about the
experience or quality and explains the quantity and explains the questions like
questions like ‘why’ and ‘how’. ‘how much’, ‘how many .

4. The data is analyzed by grouping it into 4. The data is analyzed by statistical

different categories. methods.

5.Qualitative data are subjective and can 5. Quantitative data are fixed and
be further open for interpretation. universal.

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Thank You