INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

vddf 1
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MEANING

Research is an endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and

practical problems through the application of scientific method.

 “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”

-Redman and Mory.

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing

information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
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Meaning of Research
Systematic investigation towards increasing
the sum of knowledge”
(Chambers 20th Century Dictionary)

 It refers to a systematic method consisting

of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts ,analyzing
the facts and reaching certain conclusions.
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Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers through the

application of scientific procedures.

 The objectives are:

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into

it – Exploratory or Formulative Research.

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,

situation or a group – Descriptive Research.

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

which it is associated with something else – Diagnostic Research.

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables –

Hypothesis-Testing Research.
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Characteristics of Research

Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

Research demands accurate observation and description.

Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using

existing data for a new purpose.

Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.

Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation,

search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data
gathered.
Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to

validate the data collected and conclusions reached.

Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.

Research requires courage.

Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.

Research is carefully recorded and reported.

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Wheel of Research
Improvement
in Observation
theory and problem solving and literature
review
Interpretations
and
conclusions Problem
Clarification

Data
Analysis Assumption
And
hypothesis

Data Concepts,
Collection constructs
Research and models
Design
Research Methods Vs 1-7

Methodology
 Research Methods :All the methods and
techniques which are used by the researcher
during the course of studying his/her research
problem.
Research Methods

Methods Methods
for for Evaluation
Collection of Data of Results obtained
Statistical techniques
used for
establishing relations
Research Methods Vs 1-8

Methodology
Research Methodology: is a way of
systematically solve the research
problem.

 It may be stated as a science of studying how

research is done scientifically.
 It involves not only the techniques and
methods of research but also the logic behind
it.
 It helps in designing the research
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SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 ‘Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organised
knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire
knowledge in a particular field of enquiry.

 Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts) and

their theoretical treatment through proper observation,
experimentation and interpretation.

 Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic interrelation

of facts by experimentation, observation, and logical arguments
from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in
varying proportions.
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Basic postulates in scientific method

 It relies on empirical evidence.

 It utilizes relevant concepts.
 It is committed to only objective considerations.
 It presupposes ethical neutrality.
 It results into probabilistic predictions.
 The methodology is made known.
 Aims at formulating scientific theories.
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Criteria of a Good Research

 Purpose clearly defined.

 Research process detailed.
 Research design thoroughly planned.
 High ethical standards applied.
 Limitations frankly revealed.
 Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
 Findings presented unambiguously.
 Conclusions justified.
 Researcher’s experience reflected.
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Qualities of a Good Research

 Systematic
 Logical
 Empirical
 Replicable
 Creative
 Use of multiple methods
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Need for Research

 EXPLORATION
 DESCRIBE
 DIAGNOSE
 HYPOTHESIS
 INDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS
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Scope / Significance of Research

 RESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKING

 Throws light on risks and uncertainty

 Identify alternative courses of action

 Helps in economic use of resources

 Helps in project identification

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 Solves investment problems

 Solves pricing problems

 Solves allocation problems

 Solves decision making issues in HR

 Solves various operational and planning

problems of business and industry

 Provides the basis for all government policies

in our economic system.
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 Helps social scientists in studying social

relationships and in seeking answers to various
social problems.

 For students, research means a careerism or a

way to attain a high position in the social
structure.

 For professionals in research, it may mean a

source of livelihood.
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 For philosophers and thinkers, research means

the outlet for new ideas and insights.

 For literary men and women, research means

development of new styles and creative work.

 For analysts and intellectuals, research means

generalizations of new theories.
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PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
 Not similar to science
 Uncontrollable variables
 Human tendencies
 Time and money
 Lack of computerization
 Lack of scientific training in the methodology of
research
 Insufficient interaction between university research
departments and business establishments
 Lack of confidence on the part of business units to give
information
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Contd…
 Poor library management and functioning
 Lack of code of conduct
 Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance
 Difficulty of timely availability of published data.
 Ignorance
 Research for the sake of research-limited practical
utility though they may use high sounding business
jargon.
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Role of research in Decision-making

♪ Decision-making is the process of selecting the best

alternative from the available set of alternatives.

♪ Management is chiefly concerned with decision-making

and its implementation.

♪ These decisions should be based on appropriate studies,

evaluations and observations.

♪ Research provides us with knowledge and skills needed to

solve the problems and to meet the challenges of a fast
paced decision-making environment.
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According to Herbert A Simon, decision-

making involves three activities:

 Intelligence Activity - scanning the environment for

identifying conditions necessary for the decision.

 Designing Activity - identifying, developing and

analyzing the alternative courses of action.

 Choice Activity - choosing the best course of action

from among the alternatives.
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Factors that affect Managerial Decisions

 INTERNAL FACTORS – factors present inside an

organisation such as resources, technology, trade unions,
cash flow, manpower etc.

 EXTERNAL FACTORS – factors present outside the

organisation such as government policies, political
factors, socio-economic factors, legal framework,
geographic and cultural factors etc.

 QUANTITATIVE FACTORS – factors that can be

measured in quantities such as time, resources, cost
factors etc.
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Factors that affect Managerial Decisions

 QUALITATIVE FACTORS – factors that cannot be

measured in quantities such as organizational
cohesiveness, sense of belonging of employees, risk of
technological change etc.

 UNCERTAINITY FACTORS – factors which cannot be

predicted.
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Types of Research

Descriptive vs Analytical Research

Descriptive Research is a fact finding

investigation which is aimed at describing the
characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or)
describing the state of affairs as it exists at present.

Analytical Research is primarily concerned with

testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting
relationships, by analyzing the facts or information
already available.
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Types of Research contd….

Applied vs Fundamental Research

Applied Research or Action Research is carried

out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an
action or policy decision.

Fundamental Research which is also known as

basic or pure research is undertaken for the sake of
knowledge without any intention to apply it in
practice.
It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity
and is not necessarily problem-oriented.
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Types of Research contd….

Quantitative vs Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research is employed for measuring
the quantity or amount of a particular phenomena by
the use of statistical analysis.

Qualitative Research is a non-quantitative type of

analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality of a
particular phenomenon.
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Types of Research contd….

Conceptual vs Empirical Research

Conceptual Research is generally used by

philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or
to reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical Research is a data based research

which depends on experience or observation alone. It
is aimed at coming up with conclusions without due
regard for system and theory.
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Some other types of Research..

 One-time Research – Research confined to a single time
period.
 Longitudinal Research – Research carried on over
several time periods.
 Diagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research
which aims at identifying the causes of a problem,
frequency with which it occurs and the possible solutions
for it.
 Exploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of an
unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little
or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with the
problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise
formulation of the problem. Hence it is also known as
formulative research.
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Some other types of Research..

 Experimental Research – It is designed to
assess the effect of one particular variable on a
phenomenon by keeping the other variables
constant or controlled.

 Historical Research – It is the study of past

records and other information sources, with a
view to find the origin and development of a
phenomenon and to discover the trends in the
past, inorder to understand the present and to
anticipate the future.
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RESEARCH PROCESS
FF
Review the literature
FF

Review
Concepts Analyse
Design
And Collect Data
Research Interpret
Define theories Formulate Data (Test
(Including and
Research hypothesis (Execution) Hypothesis
Sample report
Problem if any)
Review Design)
Previous
F F
I Research III IV V VI VII
findings

II
F
F Feed Back
FF Feed Forward
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STEP-1

DEFINITION
OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM
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Research Problem
 What is a research problem?

 The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue

to be examined.

 Research Problem refers to some difficulty

/need which a researcher experiences in the
context of either theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.
 1-33

How do we know we have a Research problem?

 Customer complaints
 Conversation with company employees
 Observation of inappropriate behaviour
or conditions in the firm
 Deviation from the business plan
 Success of the firm’s competitor’s
 Relevant reading of published material
(trends, regulations)
 Company records and reports.
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Step -1 contd…
The first step in the research process –
definition of the problem involves two
activities:

 Identification / Selection of the Problem

 Formulation of the Problem

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Identification / Selection of the Research problem

 This step involves identification of a few problems
and selection of one out of them, after evaluating the
alternatives against certain selection criteria.
 Sources of Problems
 Reading
 Academic Experience
 Daily Experience
 Exposure to Field Situations
 Consultations
 Brainstorming
 Research
 Intuition
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Criteria of Selection
The selection of one appropriate researchable problem
out of the identified problems requires evaluation of
those alternatives against certain criteria. They are:
 Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest,
Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Resource: finance and time.

 External Criteria or Factors – Researchability of the

problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social
Relevance, Research Personnel.
 1-37
Definition / Formulation of the Research
Problem
 Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas
into research questions and objectives.
 Formulation means translating and transforming the
selected research problem/topic/idea into a scientifically
researchable question. It is concerned with specifying
exactly what the research problem is.
 Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear, precise
and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be
investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.
 There are two ways of stating a problem:
 Posting question / questions
 Making declarative statement / statements
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Process involved in Defining the problem

 Statement of the problem in a general
way.
 Understanding the nature of problem
 Surveying the available literature
 Developing ideas through discussions
 Rephrasing the research problem
Criteria of a Good Research 1-39

Problem
 Clear and Unambiguous
 Empirical
 Verifiable
 Interesting
 Novel and Original
 Availability of Guidance
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Defining Problem, Results in Clear Cut Research
Objectives

Symptom Detection
 Establishment of Research 1-41

Objectives
 Research Objectives are the specific components of the research
problem, that you’ll be working to answer or complete, in order
to answer the overall research problem.
- Churchill, 2001
 The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through the
study. They indicate what we are trying to get from the study or
the expected results / outcome of the study.
 Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they
directly assist in answering the research problem.
 The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements
or questions.
 Generally, they are written as statements, using the word “to”.
(For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to determine …’, ‘to establish
…’, etc. )
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STEP-2

REVIEW
OF
LITERATURE
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Review of Literature
 Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive
review of the published and unpublished work from
secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to
the researcher.

 The main aim is to find out problems that are already

investigated and those that need further investigation.

 It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant

to the field of investigation.

 It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in

the related field of study and how they have done so.
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Purpose of Review
 To gain a background knowledge of the research
topic.
 To identify the concepts relating to it, potential
relationships between them and to formulate
researchable hypothesis.
 To identify appropriate methodology, research
design, methods of measuring concepts and
techniques of analysis.
 To identify data sources used by other researchers.
 To learn how others structured their reports.
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How to conduct the Literature Survey?

 Identify the relevant sources.

 Extract and Record relevant

information.

 Write-up the Literature Review.

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Sources of Literature
 Books and Journals
 Electronic Databases
 Bibliographic Databases
 Abstract Databases
 Full-Text Databases
 Govt. and Industry Reports
 Internet
 Research Dissertations / Thesis
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How to write the review?

 There are several ways of presenting the ideas of
others within the body of the paper.

For Example; If you are referring the major

influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of
Industrial Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,

1. Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a

number of influencing factors ……..
2. According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial
buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing
factors……..
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How to write the review?

3. In some models of industrial buying behaviour,
there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth,
1973).

4. In some models of industrial buying behaviour,

there are a number of influencing factors1.

1. Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying

Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.
 1-49

Points to be kept in mind while reviewing literature..

 Read relevant literature.

 Refer original works.
 Read with comprehension.
 Read in time.
 Index the literature.
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STEP-3

FORMULATION
OF
HYPOTHESIS
 1-51

HYPOTHESIS
 A hypothesis is an assumption about relations
between variables.

 Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured

relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a testable statement.

Relationships are conjectured on the basis of

the network of associations established in the
theoretical framework formulated for the research
study.
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VARIABLES
 Anything that can vary can be considered as a
variable.

 A variable is anything that can take on differing or

varying values.

For example; Age, Production units,

Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height,
Weight etc.

Note: The values can differ at various times for the

same object or person (or) at the same time for
different objects or persons.
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Variable / Attribute
 A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or
more values whereas, an attribute is a specific
value on a variable (qualitative).

For example;
 The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes -

Male and Female.

 The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –

Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree,

Strongly Disagree.
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Types of Variables
Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable
The variables selected for analysis are called
explanatory variables and all other variables that are not
related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent
variable are extraneous.

Dependent vs Independent Variable

The variable that changes in relationship to changes in
another variable(s) is called dependent variable.
The variable whose change results in the change in
another variable is called an independent variable.
OR
An independent variable is the one that influences the
dependent variable in either a positive or negative way.
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HYPOTHESIS
 Research Hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable.
Hypothesis must contain atleast one
independent variable and one dependent
variable.
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HYPOTHESIS
 Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to
the solution of the problem.
 Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It

describes in concrete terms what you expect to

happen in the study.
 Hypothesis is an assumption about the population

of the study.
 It delimits the area of research and keeps the

researcher on the right track.

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PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesisis an assumption, that can be

tested and can be proved to be right or
wrong.

A problem is a broad question which cannot

be directly tested. A problem can be
scientifically investigated after converting it
into a form of hypothesis.
 1-58

Characteristics of Hypothesis
 Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.

 Specificity - It should be specific and limited in

scope.

 Consistency - It should be consistent with the

objectives of research.

 Testability - It should be capable of being tested.

 Expectancy - It should state the expected

relationships between variables.
 1-59

Characteristics of Hypothesis
 Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in
simple terms.
 Objectivity - It should not include value judgments,
relative terms or any moral preaching.
 Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with
a substantial body of established or known facts or
existing theory.
 Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods
should be available for testing the proposed
hypothesis.
 1-60

Sources of Hypothesis
 Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.
 Examination of data and records for possible trends,
peculiar.
 Review of similar studies.

 Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.

 Logical deduction from the existing theory.

 Continuity of research.

 Intuition and personal experience.

 1-61

Types of Hypothesis

Descriptive Hypothesis
These are assumptions that describe the
characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a
variable. The variable may be an object, person,
organisation, situation or event.

Examples:
“Public enterprises are more amenable for
centralized planning”.
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Types of Hypothesis
Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]
These are assumptions that describe the
relationship between two variables. The relationship
suggested may be positive, negative or causal
relationship.
Examples:
“Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.

Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in

one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The
first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the
dependent variable.
 1-63

Types of Hypothesis
NULL Hypothesis
When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it
is called null hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no
relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference
exists between the parameter and statistic being
compared to or no relationship exists between the
variables being compared.
It is usually represented as HO or H0 .

Examples:

H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income and

expenditure on recreation..
 1-64

Types of Hypothesis
Alternate Hypothesis
It is the hypothesis that describes the
researcher’s prediction that, there exist a relationship
between two variables or it is the opposite of null
hypothesis.
It is represented as HA or H1.

Examples:

HA: There is a definite relationship between family’s income

and expenditure on recreation.
 1-65

Functions or role of Hypothesis

 It gives a definite point to the investigation and

provides direction to the study.
 It determines the data needs.
 It specifies the sources of data.
 It suggests which type of research is likely to be
more appropriate.
 It determines the most appropriate technique of
analysis.
 It contributes to the development of theory.
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STEP-4

RESEARCH
DESIGN
(INCLUDING SAMPLING
DESING)
 1-67

Preparing the Research Design

 The function of research design is to provide

for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
 Research purpose may be grouped into four
categories, viz.,
 Exploration,
 Description,
 Diagnosis,
 Experimentation.
 1-68

Determine the Research Design

 There are four main methods of research used by
sociologist:
 Survey – A group is questioned to reveal specific facts
about themselves. Can be interviews, computer based, or
face to face.
 Participant observation – Researchers entering into a
groups activities and observing the members.
 Experiment - investigation in which the variables being
studied are controlled and the researcher obtains the results
through precise observation and measurement.
 Secondary Analysis - process of making use of data that
has been collected by others.
 1-69

Determining the Sample Design

 All the items under consideration in any field
constitute a “Universe” or “Population”
 A complete enumeration of all the items in the
“population” is known as a “census enquiry”
 Since a complete census enquiry is not
possible generally, we select a ‘sample’ – a
few items from the “universe” for our study
 Researcher selects the sample by using
‘sampling design’ – a definite plan
determined before any data is actually
collected
 1-70

Types of Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster/area Sampling
5. Multi-stage Sampling
6. Quota Sampling
7. Convenience Sampling
8. Judgmental Sampling
9. Snowball Sampling
 1-71

STEP-5

COLLECTION OF DATA
 1-72

Collecting the Data

 Need to collect appropriate data
 Primary data can be collected through experiment or
survey
 In experiment, observer observes some quantitative
measurements (data), with which the hypothesis is
tested
 In Survey, data can be collected by the following
methods:
i. Observation
ii. Personal Interview
iii. Telephone Interview
iv. Mailing Questionnaires
v. Through Schedules
 1-73

Execution of the Project

 The research study must be executed
in a systematic manner to ensure that
adequate and dependable data are
collected.

 Should be rigorously methodological

 1-74

STEP-6

ANALYSIS OF DATA
 1-75

8. Analysis of Data
 Requires that the data be necessarily condensed
into manageable groups and tables for further
analyses
 Should classify the new data into some
purposeful and usable categories
 Coding is done at this stage
 Tabulation – classified data are put into tables
 Analysis, after tabulation is based on the
computation of various percentages, coefficients,
etc. by applying statistics
 Tests of significance would be applied wherever
relevant
 1-76

Hypothesis Testing
 Do the data support the hypothesis or they
contrary?

 Chi Square test, t-test, f-test are normally

used

 Hypothesis testing will result in either

accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it
 1-77

STEP-7

INTERPRET
&
REPORT
 1-78

Generalization & Interpretation

 To arrive at a generalization, that is, to
build a theory

 Or to interpret the data in terms of

existing state of knowledge (theories)
 1-79

Preparation of Report/Thesis
 Has to prepare the report
 The layout of the report is as

follows:
 The prefatory part
 The Main Body/Text

 The Supplemental Part

 1-80

The Prefatory Part

 Title page
 Certification
 Acknowledgments
 Preface
 Contents page
 1-81

The Main Body

 Introduction
 Summary of Findings
 Main Report
 conclusion
 1-82

The Supplemental Part

 References, or
 Bibliography
 Appendices
 Index
 1-83

Good Research Requires

 The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly
defined.
 The process to be clearly explained so that it can be
reproduced and verified by other researchers.
 A thoroughly planned design that is as objective as
possible.
 Highly ethical standards are applied.
 All limitations are documented.
 Data be adequately analyzed and explained.
 All findings are presented unambiguously and all
conclusions be justified by sufficient evidence.
Application of Research
in Different Areas
 1-85

Application of Research
Different Branches of knowledge may broadly be
divided as per the figure:

The research carried out, in these areas, is called

management research, production research,
personnel research, financial management research,
accounting research, Marketing research etc.
 1-86

Application of Research Contd….

 Management research includes various functions of management such
as planning, organizing, staffing, communicating, coordinating,
motivating, controlling. Various motivational theories are the result of
research.
 Production (also called manufacturing) research focuses more on
materials and equipment rather than on human aspects. It covers various
aspects such as new and better ways of producing goods, inventing new
technologies, reducing costs, improving product quality.
 Research in personnel management may range from very simple
problems to highly complex problems of all types. It is primarily
concerned with the human aspects of the business such as personnel
policies, job requirements, job evaluation, recruitment, selection,
placement, training and development, promotion and transfer, morale
and attitudes, wage and salary administration, industrial relations. Basic
research in this field would be valuable as human behaviour affects
organizational behaviour and productivity.
 1-87

Application of Research Contd….

 Research in Financial Management includes financial
institutions, financing instruments (egs. shares, debentures),
financial markets (capital market, money market, primary market,
secondary market), financial services (egs. merchant banking,
discounting, factoring), financial analysis (e.g. investment
analysis, ratio analysis, funds flow / cash flow analysis) etc.,

 Accounting research though narrow in its scope, but is a highly

significant area of business management. Accounting information
is used as a basis for reports to the management, shareholders,
investors, tax authorities, regulatory bodies and other interested
parties. Areas for accounting research include inventory valuation,
depreciation accounting, generally accepted accounting principles,
accounting standards, corporate reporting etc.
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Application of Research Contd….

 Marketing Research deals with product development and
distribution problems, marketing institutions, marketing policies
and practices, consumer behaviour, advertising and sales
promotion, sales management and after sales service etc.
Marketing research is one of the very popular areas and also a
well established one. Marketing research includes market
potentials, sales forecasting, product testing, sales analysis,
market surveys, test marketing, consumer behaviour studies,
marketing information system etc.

 Business Policy Research is basically the research with policy

implications. The results of such studies are used as indices for
policy formulation and implementation. Business history
research is concerned with the past. For example, how was trade
and commerce during the Moghul regime.
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