Current Flow in

Semiconductors

1
1. Drift Current
There are two distinctly different mechanisms for the movement of
charge carriers and hence for current flow in semiconductors: drift and
diffusion.
• Q: What happens when an electrical field (E) is applied to a
semiconductor crystal?
• A: Holes are accelerated in the direction of E, free
electrons are attracted.
• Q: How is the velocity of these carriers defined?
 p hole mobilityPpp  n electron mobilityPpp
E electric fieldPpp E electric fieldPpp
              
v p  driftv p
(eq3.8)  p E pE
drift 
vn  drift v
(eq3.9)   n E  nE
n drift 

2
 1. Drift Current
note that electrons move with velocity 2.5 times higher
than holes

.E (volts / cm)

.mp (cm2/Vs) = 480 for silicon

.mn (cm2/Vs) = 1350 for silicon

3
 An electric field E established in a bar of silicon causes the holes to
3.3.1.drift
Drift
in theCurrent
direction of E and the free electrons to drift in the
opposite direction. Both the hole and electron drift currents are in
the direction of E.

• Q: What happens when an electrical field (E) is applied to

a semiconductor crystal?
• A: Holes are accelerated in the direction of E, free
electrons are repelled.
HOLES
• Q: How is the velocity of these holes defined?
ELECTRONS
 p hole mobility n electron mobility
 E electric
 field  Eelectric field
  
v p drift  p E vn drift  n E

4
1. Drift Current

5
Example 6: Drift current

A uniform bar of n-type silicon of 2 μm length has a voltage of 1 V applied

across it. If and .s, find (a) the electron drift velocity, (b) the time it takes an
electron to cross the 2-μm length, (c) the drift-current density, and (d) the drift
current in the case the silicon bar has a cross sectional area of .

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 6
Example 6: Drift current, contd.

length

c. The current density is given by

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 7
2. Diffusion Current

• Take the following example… diffusion occurs

inject
• inject holes – By some holes
unspecified process, one injects
holes in to the left side of a silicon
bar.
• concentration profile arises –
Because of this continuous hole
inject, a concentration profile
arises.
• diffusion occurs – Because of this concentration
concentration gradient, holes will profile arises
flow from left to right.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 8
 4. The pn Junction with Open-Circuit
Terminals
4.1. Physical Structure
pn junction structure
• p-type semiconductor
• n-type semiconductor
• metal contact for connection

Simplified physical structure of the pn junction. As the pn junction implements the

junction diode, its terminals are labeled anode and cathode.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 9
 The pn Junction with Open-Circuit
Terminals
1. Physical Structure
pn junction structure
• p-type semiconductor
• n-type semiconductor
• metal contact for connection

Simplified physical structure of the pn junction. As the pn junction implements the

junction diode, its terminals are labeled anode and cathode.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 10
2. pn Junction
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• Q: What is state of pn junction with open-circuit

terminals?
• A: Read the below…
• p-type material contains majority of holes
• these holes are neutralized by equal amount of bound
negative charge
• n-type material contains majority of free electrons
• these electrons are neutralized by equal amount of bound
positive charge

11
2. pn Junction
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

bound charge
• charge of opposite polarity to free electrons / holes of a given material
• neutralizes the electrical charge of these majority carriers
• does not affect concentration gradients

free holes free electrons

negative bound positive bound

charges charges

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).
12
4.2. Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• Q: What happens when a pn-junction is newly formed – aka. when

the p-type and n-type semiconductors first touch one another?
• A: See following slides…

Lecture 03 13
Step #1: The p-type and n-type
semiconductors are joined at the junction.

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

junction
filled with holes filled with free electrons

Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

14
Step #2: Diffusion begins. Those free electrons
and holes which are closest to the junction will
recombine and, essentially, eliminate one another.

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

15
Step #3: The depletion region begins to form –
as diffusion occurs and free electrons
recombine with holes.

The depletion region is filled with “uncovered” bound charges – who

have lost the majority carriers to which they were linked.

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

16
Step #4: The “uncovered” bound charges affect a
voltage differential across the depletion region.
The magnitude of this barrier voltage (V0)
differential grows, as diffusion continues.
No voltage differential exists across regions of the pn-junction
outside of the depletion region because of the neutralizing effect of
positive and negative bound charges.
voltage potential

barrier voltage
(Vo)
p-type n-type
location (x)

17
Step #5: The barrier voltage (V0) is an electric
field whose polarity opposes the direction of
diffusion current (ID). As the magnitude of V0
increases, the magnitude of ID decreases.
diffusion current drift current
(ID) (IS)

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

18
Step #6: Equilibrium is reached, and diffusion
ceases, once the magnitudes of diffusion and drift
currents equal one another – resulting in no net
flow.
Once equilibrium is achieved,
diffusion no netdrift
current current current
flow exists (Inet = ID – IS)
within the pn-junction
(ID) while under open-circuit
(IS) condition.

p-type depletion n-type

region

19
Step #5: The barrier voltage (V0) is an electric
field whose polarity opposes the direction of
diffusion current (ID). As the magnitude of V0
increases, the magnitude of ID decreases.
diffusion current drift current
(ID) (IS)

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

20
Step #6: Equilibrium is reached, and diffusion
ceases, once the magnitudes of diffusion and drift
currents equal one another – resulting in no net
flow.
Once equilibrium is achieved,
diffusion no netdrift
current current current
flow exists (Inet = ID – IS)
within the pn-junction
(ID) while under open-circuit
(IS) condition.

p-type depletion n-type

region

21
 Step #4: The “uncovered” bound charges affect a
voltage differential across the depletion region.
The magnitude of this barrier voltage (V0)
differential grows, as diffusion continues.
No voltage differential exists across regions of the pn-junction
outside of the depletion region because of the neutralizing effect of
positive and negative bound charges.
voltage potential

barrier voltage
(Vo)
p-type n-type
location (x)

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 22
4.2. Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• Q: What happens when a pn-junction is newly formed – aka. when

the p-type and n-type semiconductors first touch one another?
• A: See following slides…

Lecture 03 23
Step #1: The p-type and n-type
semiconductors are joined at the junction.

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

junction
filled with holes filled with free electrons

Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

24
Step #2: Diffusion begins. Those free electrons
and holes which are closest to the junction will
recombine and, essentially, eliminate one another.

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

25
Step #3: The depletion region begins to form –
as diffusion occurs and free electrons
recombine with holes.

The depletion region is filled with “uncovered” bound charges – who

have lost the majority carriers to which they were linked.

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

26
Step #4: The “uncovered” bound charges affect a
voltage differential across the depletion region.
The magnitude of this barrier voltage (V0)
differential grows, as diffusion continues.
No voltage differential exists across regions of the pn-junction
outside of the depletion region because of the neutralizing effect of
positive and negative bound charges.
voltage potential

barrier voltage
(Vo)
p-type n-type
location (x)

27
5. The pn Junction with an Applied Voltage
5.1. Qualitative Description of Junction Operation

• Figure to right shows pn-

junction under three
conditions:
• (a) open-circuit – where a
barrier voltage V0 exists.
• (b) reverse bias – where a
dc voltage VR is applied.
• (c) forward bias – where Figure 11: The pn junction in: (a)
a dc voltage VF is applied. equilibrium; (b) reverse bias; (c)
forward bias.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 28
 1) no voltage 1) negative voltage 1) positive voltage
applied applied applied
2) voltage differential 2) voltage differential 2) voltage differential
across depletion zone across depletion zone across depletion zone
is V0 is V0 + VR is V0 - VF
• Figure to right shows pn-junction
under three
3) ID = Iconditions:
S
3) ID < IS 3) ID > IS
• (a) open-circuit – where a barrier
voltage V0 exists.
• (b) reverse bias – where a dc
voltage VR is applied.
• (c) forward bias – where a dc
voltage VF is applied. Figure 3.11: The pn junction in:
(a) equilibrium; (b) reverse bias;
(c) forward bias.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 29
Reverse Biased Diode’s Application:
Voltage-Dependent Capacitor

The PN junction can be viewed as a capacitor. By varying VR, the

depletion width changes, changing its capacitance value; therefore,
the PN junction is actually a voltage-dependent capacitor.

30
Example: How does a
Voltage dependent
capacitor work ?
5.2. The Current-Voltage Relationship
of the Junction
V / VT
(eq3.40) I IS (e  1)
• saturation current (IS) –
is the maximum reverse
current which will flow
through pn-junction.
• It is proportional to
cross-section of
junction (A).
• Typical value is 10-
18
A. Figure 13: The pn junction I–V
characteristic.

32
Example: calculate the current flowing
in a p-n junction subjected to a
forward voltage of 0.4V given that
saturation current Is=10-18 A and
thermal voltage VT= 0.026 V
 5.3 Reverse Breakdown

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 34
Zener breakdown

• The electric field in the depletion layer increases to cause breaking

covalent bonds and generating electron-hole pairs.
• The electrons generated in this way will be swept by the electric
field into the n side and the holes into the p side. Thus these
electrons and holes constitute a reverse current across the junction.
• Once the zener effect starts (VR=5V), a large number of carriers can
be generated, with a negligible increase in the junction voltage. Thus
the reverse current in the breakdown region will be large and its
value must be determined by the external circuit.
• the reverse voltage appearing between the diode terminals will
remain close to the specified breakdown voltage VZ.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 35
Avalanche breakdown

• The minority carriers that cross the depletion region under the
influence of the electric field gain sufficient kinetic energy to be
able to break covalent bonds in atoms with which they collide.
• The carriers liberated by this process may have sufficiently high
energy to be able to cause other carriers to be liberated in
another ionizing collision.
• This process keeps repeating in the fashion of an avalanche, with
the result that many carriers are created that are able to support
any value of reverse current, as determined by the external
circuit, with a negligible change in the voltage drop across the
junction.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 36
5.3 Reverse Breakdown
• The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before
entering the breakdown region is called the peak inverse voltage
(referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage
(denoted the PRV rating).

37
6. Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction

1. Depletion or Junction Capacitance

When a pn junction is reverse biased Where

2. Diffusion Capacitance
When a pn junction is forward biased (‫المعادالت أعاله كانت موجودة هنا و تم‬
‫)إصالح الخطأ‬

is the mean transit time of the junction.

I is the forward-bias current.

38
6. Capacitive Effects in the pn
Junction

• junction capacitance:
 due to the dipole in the transition region (associated with the charge
stored in the depletion region).
 Also called transition region capacitance or depletion layer capacitance.
 Dominates under reverse bias conditions.
• Charge storage (Diffusion) capacitance:
 associated with the minority carrier charge stored in the n and p materials
as a result of the concentration profiles established by carrier injection.
 Also referred to as diffusion capacitance.
 Dominant when the junction is forward biased.

39
Summary (1)

• Today’s microelectronics technology is almost

entirely based on the semiconductor silicon. If a
circuit is to be fabricated as a monolithic integrated
circuit (IC), it is made using a single silicon crystal, no
matter how large the circuit is.
• In a crystal of intrinsic or pure silicon, the atoms are
held in position by covalent bonds. At very low
temperatures, all the bonds are intact; No charge
carriers are available to conduct current. As such, at
these low temperatures, silicone acts as an insulator.
03/02/2025 Lecture 03 41
Summary (2)

• At room temperature, thermal energy causes some of the

covalent bonds to break, thus generating free electrons
and holes that become available to conduct electricity.
• Current in semiconductors is carried by free electrons and
holes. Their numbers are equal and relatively small in
intrinsic silicon.
• The conductivity of silicon may be increased drastically by
introducing small amounts of appropriate impurity
materials into the silicon crystal – via process called
doping.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 42
Summary (3)

• There are two kinds of doped semiconductor: n-type in

which electrons are abundant, p-type in which holes
are abundant.
• There are two mechanisms for the transport of charge
carriers in a semiconductor: drift and diffusion.
• Carrier drift results when an electric field (E) is applied
across a piece of silicon. The electric field accelerates
the holes in the direction of E and electrons oppositely.
These two currents sum to produce drift current in
the direction of E.
03/02/2025 Lecture 03 43
Summary (4)

• Carrier diffusion occurs when the concentration of

charge carriers is made higher in one part of a
silicon crystal than others. To establish a steady-
state diffusion current, a carrier concentration must
be maintained in the silicon crystal.
• A basic semiconductor structure is the pn-junction.
It is fabricated in a silicon crystal by creating a p-
region in proximity to an n-region. The pn-junction
is a diode and plays a dominant role in the structure
and operation of transistors.
03/02/2025 Lecture 03 44
Summary (5)

• When the terminals of the pn-junction are left open, no

current flows externally. However, two equal and
opposite currents (ID and IS) flow across the junction.
Equilibrium is maintained by a built-in voltage (V0). Note,
however, that the voltage across an open junction is 0V,
since V0 is cancelled by potentials appearing at the metal-
to-semiconductor connection interfaces.
• The voltage V0 appears across the depletion region, which
extends on both sides of the junction.

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 45
Summary (6)

• The drift current IS is carried by thermally generated

minority electrons in the p-material that are swept across
the depletion region into the n-side. The opposite occurs
in the n-material. IS flows from n to p, in the reverse
direction of the junction. Its value is a strong function of
temperature, but independent of V0.
• Forward biasing of the pn-junction, that is applying an
external voltage that makes p more positive than n,
reduces the barrier voltage to V0 - V and results in an
exponential increase in ID (while IS remains unchanged).

03/02/2025 Lecture 03 46
 Semiconductor Diode Notation

Various types of junction diodes

03/02/2025 47
Diode Testing

• Diode Checking Function

• Ohmmeter Testing
• Curve Tracer

48
Introduction

• In this Lecture we will learn

 application of the diode in the design of rectifier circuits, which
convert ac voltages to dc as needed for powering electronic
equipment.
 a number of other practical and important applications: limiting and
clamping circuits.
 Special diode types: LED, Photo diode, Schottky diode, Varactor
diode, Zener diode.

03/02/2025 49
4.5. Rectifier Circuits

• One important application of

diode is the rectifier –
• Electrical device
which converts
alternating current
(AC) to direct
current (DC)
• One important application of
rectifier is dc power supply. Figure 4.20: Block diagram of a dc
power supply
step #1: Decrease RMS magnitude of AC wave
via power transformer
step #2: convert full-wave AC signal to full-wave
rectified signal (still time-varying and periodic)
step #3: employ low-pass filter to reduce wave
amplitude by > 90%
step #4: employ voltage regulator to eliminate
ripple
step #5: supply dc load
.

Figure 4.20:Microelectronic
Block Circuitsdiagram ofandaKenneth
Oxford University Publishing
by Adel S. Sedra dcC.power
Smith supply
(0195323033)
 4.5.1. The Half-Wave Rectifier

• half-wave rectifier
– utilizes only
alternate half-cycles
of the input
sinusoid
• Constant voltage
drop diode model is
employed.

Figure 4.21: (a) Half-wave rectifier (b) Transfer characteristic of the rectifier circuit (c)
Input and output waveforms
03/02/2025 52
4.5.1. The Half-Wave Rectifier

In selecting diodes for rectifier design, two important parameters

must be specified:
• current-handling capability – what is maximum forward current
diode is expected to conduct?
• peak inverse voltage (PIV) – what is maximum reverse voltage it
is expected to block w/o breakdown?

It is usually prudent to select a diode that has a reverse breakdown

voltage at least 50% greater than the expected PIV.

03/02/2025 53
4.5.2. The
Full-Wave Rectifier

• Q: How does full-

wave rectifier differ
from half-wave?
• A: It utilizes both
halves of the input
• One potential is
shown to right.

Figure 4.22: Full-wave rectifier utilizing a

transformer with a center-tapped secondary
winding.

03/02/2025 54
 Figure 4.22: full-wave rectifier utilizing a transformer with a center-
tapped secondary winding: (a) circuit; (b) transfer characteristic
assuming a constant-voltage-drop model for the diodes; (c) input
03/02/2025 and output waveforms. 55
4.5.2. The Full-Wave Rectifier

• Q: What are most important observation(s) from this

operation?
• A: The direction of current flowing across load never
changes (both halves of AC wave are rectified). The full-
wave rectifier produces a more “energetic” waveform
than half-wave.
• PIV for full-wave = 2VS – VD

03/02/2025 56
4.5.3. The Bridge Rectifier

• An alternative
implementation of
the full-wave
rectifier is bridge
rectifier.
• Shown to right.
Figure 4.23: The bridge rectifier circuit.

03/02/2025 57
 when instantaneous source voltage is positive, D1
and D2 conduct while D3 and D4 block

Figure 4.23: The bridge rectifier circuit.

03/02/2025 58
 when instantaneous source voltage is positive, D1
and D2 conduct while D3 and D4 block

Figure 4.23: The bridge rectifier circuit.

03/02/2025 59
4.5.3: The Bridge Rectifier (BR)

• Q: What is the main advantage of BR?

• A: No need for center-tapped transformer.
• Q: What is main disadvantage?
• A: Series connection of TWO diodes will reduce output
voltage.
• PIV = VS – VD

03/02/2025 60
 4.5.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor

• step #1: source voltage is

positive, diode is forward
biased, capacitor charges.
• step #2: source voltage is
reverse, diode is reverse-
biased (blocking), capacitor
cannot discharge.
• step #3: source voltage is
positive, diode is forward
biased, capacitor charges
(maintains voltage).
Figure 4.24 (a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the effect…
03/02/2025 61
 4.5.4. The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor
• Q: Why is this example unrealistic?
• A: Because for any practical application, the converter
would supply a load (which in turn provides a path for
capacitor discharging).

62
 4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
• Q: What happens
when load resistor is
placed in series with
capacitor?
• A: One must now
consider the
discharging of
capacitor across load.

63
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor

circuit state #1

output
 voltage
 for
 state
 #1
vO t  vI t   vD
t

vO t  Vpeak e RC
      
output voltage for state #2
circuit state #2
64
output voltage for state #1
    
vO t  vI t 
t

vO t  Vpeak e RC
      
output voltage for state #2

Figure 4.25: Voltage and Current Waveforms in the Peak Rectifier

Circuit WITH RC >> T. The diode is assumed ideal.
65
 4.6.2. The Clamped
Capacitor or DC
Restorer
• Q: What is a dc restorer?
• A: Circuit which removes the
dc component of an AC wave.
• Q: Why is this ability important?
• A: Average value of this output
is effective way to measure
duty cycle
Figure 4.32: The clamped
capacitor or dc restorer with a
square-wave input and no load

03/02/2025 66
4.6.3: The Voltage Doubler

• Q: What is a voltage doubler?

• A: One which multiplies the
amplitude of a wave or signal
by two.

Figure 4.34: Voltage doubler: (a) circuit;

(b) waveform of the voltage across D1.

03/02/2025 67
 Special Diode Types

03/02/2025 68
 Optical Diodes

There are two popular types of optoelectronic devices:

light-emitting diode (LED) and photodiode.
The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
LED is diode that emits light when biased in the forward direction
of p-n junction.

Anode Cathode

The schematic symbol and construction features.

 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

LED that are produced in an array of shapes and sizes.

LED characteristics:

characteristic curves are very similar to those for p-n junction diodes
higher forward voltage (VF)
lower reverse breakdown voltage (VBR).
 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
Application
The seven segment display is an example of LEDs use for display
of decimal digits.

The 7-segment LED display.

 LED Displays

LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the most
familiar pattern being the 7-segment displays for showing numbers (digits
0-9).
 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
Light Spectrum

Red, green and blue LEDs

 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
When a light-emitting diode is forward
biased, electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons.

This effect is called electroluminescence

and the color of the light (corresponding
to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor.

Fabricating the pn junction using a

semiconductor of the type known as
direct-bandgap materials.
LED - Light Emitting Diodes

UV – AlGaN
Blue – GaN, InGaN
Red, green – GaP
Red, yellow – GaAsP
IR- GaAs
 Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to

limit the current through the LED. The resistor value,
R is given by:

R = (VS - VL) / I
VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted
If the calculated value is not available, choose the nearest standard resistor value
which is greater, to limit the current. Even greater resistor value will increase the
battery life but this will make the LED less bright.

For example
If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current
I = 20mA = 0.020A,
R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350, so choose 390 (the nearest greater standard value).
 The Photodiode

Photodiode is a p-n junction that can convert light energy

into electrical energy.
It operates in reverse bias voltage (VR), as shown in Figure,
where Iλ is the reverse light current.
It has a small transparent window that allows light to strike
the p-n junction.
The resistance of a photodiode is calculated by the formula
as follows:
Iλ

VR
RR 
I
 Alarm System using Photodiode

Photodiode Alarm Circuit

IR Transmitter Circuit

03/02/2025 78
 The Schottky Diode

 The Schottky diode’s significant characteristic is its fast switching

speed.
 This is useful for high frequencies and digital applications.
 It is not a typical diode in that it does not have a p-n junction.
 Instead, it consists of a doped semiconductor (usually n-type) and
metal bound together.

Schottky diode (a) symbol and (b) basic internal construction

 Zener Diode K
Cathode (K)
Zener diode is a p-n junction diode +
that is designed to operate in the
reverse breakdown region. V I
Two things happen when the Z
− Z
reverse breakdown voltage (VBR) is Anode (A) A
reached:
The diode current increases
drastically.

The reverse voltage (VR) across

the diode remains relatively
constant.
VBR
In other words, the voltage across a
zener diode operated in this region
is relatively constant over a range
of reverse current and nearly equal
to its zener voltage (VZ) rating.

Zener diode voltage-curent (V-I) characteristic.

 Zener Diode
Ideal-and-Practical Zener Equivalent Circuits
I
F

VR
V VF
Z

IR
Ideal model and characteristic curve of a
zener diode in reverse breakdown.
The constant voltage drop =
Practical model and characteristic curve of a zener diode, where
the nominal zener voltage.
the zener impedance (resistance), Z Z is included.

A change in zener current (ΔIZ) produces a

small change in zener voltage (ΔVZ).
 Varactor (Varicap Diode)
Varactor is a type of p-n junction diode that
operates in reverse bias. The capacitance of
the junction is controlled by the amount of
reverse bias.
Varactor diodes are also referred to as
varicaps or tuning diodes and they are Varactor diode symbol
commonly used in communication systems.
Basic Operation
The capacitance of a reverse-biased
varactor junction is found as:

A
C
d
C = the total junction capacitance.
A = the plate area.
ε = the dielectric constant (permittivity).
d = the width of the depletion region Reverse-biased varactor diode acts
(plate separation). as a variable capacitor.
 Varactor (Varicap Diode)
When the junction diode is
reverse biased, the insulating
barrier widens reducing diode
capacitance.

The barrier forms the dielectric,

of variable width, of a capacitor.
The N and P type cathode and anode are the two plates of the capacitor.
In the diagram, the diode and coil form a resonant circuit.

The capacitance of the diode, and thereby the resonant frequency, is

varied by means of the potentiometer controlling the reverse voltage
across the varicap.

The capacitor prevents the coil shorting out the voltage across the
potentiometer.
Summary (1)

• Rectifiers convert ac voltage into unipolar

voltages. Half-wave rectifiers do this by
passing the voltage in half of each cycle and
blocking the opposite-polarity voltage in the
other half of the cycle.
• The bridge-rectifier circuit is the preferred
full-wave rectifier configuration.

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Summary (2)

• The variation of the output waveform of the

rectifier is reduced considerably by connecting a
capacitor C across the output load resistance R.
The resulting circuit is the peak rectifier. The
output waveform then consists of a dc voltage
almost equal to the peak of the input sine wave,
Vp, on which is superimposed a ripple component
of frequency 2f (in the full-wave case) and of peak-
to-peak amplitude Vr = Vp/2fRC.

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Summary (3)

• Combination of diodes, resistors, and possible

reference voltage can be used to design voltage
limiters that prevent one or both extremities of
the output waveform from going beyond
predetermined values – the limiting levels.
• Applying a time-varying waveform to a circuit
consisting of a capacitor in series with a diode
and taking the output across the diode provides
a clamping function.
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• By cascading a clamping circuit with a peak- 86
Summary (4)

• Beyond a certain value of reverse voltage (that

depends on the diode itself), breakdown occurs
and current increases rapidly with a small
corresponding increase in voltage.
• Diodes designed to operate in the breakdown
region are called zener diodes. They are
employed in the design of voltage regulators
whose function is to provide a constant dc
voltage that varies little with variations in power
supply voltage and / or load current.
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