Radio

Transmitters
Learning Outcomes:
Describe the requirements and specifications of transmitters and determine
whether a given transmitter is suitable for a particular application.

Analyze the operation of transmitter circuits.

Discuss the operation of phase-locked loop (PLL) and direct digital synthesis (DDS)
frequency synthesizers and explain how the output frequency is changed.

Explain the basic design of L, π, and T-type LC circuits, and discuss how they are
used for impedance matching.
 Radio
Transmitters
• A radio transmitter takes the information to be
communicated and converts it to an electronic
signal compatible with the communication medium.

• Typically, this process involves carrier generation,

modulation, and power amplification.

• The signal is then fed by wire, coaxial cable, or

waveguide to an antenna that launches it into free
space.
 Transmitter
Fundamentals
• The transmitter is the electronic unit that accepts the information signal
to be trans mitted and converts it to an RF signal capable of being
transmitted over long distances.

4 Basic Requirements
• It must generate a carrier signal of the correct frequency at a desired
point in the spectrum.
• It must provide some form of modulation that causes the information
signal to modify the carrier signal.
• It must provide sufficient power amplification to ensure that the signal
level is high enough to carry over the desired distance.
• It must provide circuits that match the impedance of the power
amplifier to that of the antenna for maximum transfer of power.
 Transmitter
Configurations

• The simplest transmitter is a single-transistor

oscillator connected directly to an antenna.
The oscillator generates the carrier and can be
switched off and on by a telegraph key to
produce the dots and dashes of the
International Morse code.

• Information transmitted in this way is referred

to as continuous-wave (CW) transmission.
• The CW transmitter can be greatly
improved by simply adding a power
amplifier to it (Fig. 8-1). The oscillator is
still keyed off and on to produce dots and
dashes, and the amplifier increases the
power level of the signal.

• The result is a stronger signal that carries

farther and produces more reliable
transmission. The basic oscillator-
amplifier combination shown is the basis
for virtually all radio transmitters.
 Fig. 8-2 shows an AM transmitter using high-level
modulation. An oscillator, in most applications a
High- crystal oscillator, generates the final carrier frequency.
The carrier signal is then fed to a buffer amplifier
Level whose primary purpose is to isolate the oscillator from
the remaining power amplifier stages.
AM
Transmit The buffer amplifier usually operates at the class A
level and provides a modest increase in power output.

ters It prevent load changes in the power amplifier stages

or in the antenna from causing frequency variations in
the oscillator
 High-Level AM Transmitters

• The purpose of this circuit is to generate sufficient output power to drive the final
power amplifier stage.

• The final power amplifier, normally just referred to as the final, also operates at the class
C level at very high power. The actual amount of power depends on the application (e.g.
CB transmitter, Pin = 5W).
•.
• However, AM radio stations operate at much higher powers— 250, 500, 1000, 5000, or
50,000 W—and the video transmitter at a TV station operates at even higher power
levels. Cell phone base stations operate at the 30- to 40-W level.
• Speech processors also contain a circuit used to hold the
amplitude to some maximum level. High-amplitude
signals are compressed and lower-amplitude signals are
given more amplification. The result is that
overmodulation is prevented, yet the transmitter
operates as close to 100% modulation as possible.
 Low-Level FM Transmitters

• In low-level modulation, modulation is performed on

the carrier at low power levels, and the signal is then
amplified by power amplifiers. This arrangement works
for both AM and FM.

• Fig. 8-3 shows the typical configuration for an FM or PM

transmitter. The indirect method of FM generation is
used. A stable crystal oscillator is used to generate the
carrier signal, and a buffer amplifier is used to isolate it
from the remainder of the circuitry. The carrier signal is
then applied to a phase modulator.
Most FM communication transmitters operate at relatively low power levels, typically less than 100 W. All the circuits,
even in the VHF and UHF range, use transistors. For power levels beyond several hundred watts, vacuum tubes must
be used. The final amplifier stages in FM broadcast transmitters typically use large vacuum tube class C amplifiers. In
FM transmitters operating in the microwave range, klystrons, magnetrons, and traveling-wave tubes are used to
provide the final power amplification.
 SSB
Transmitters
• A typical single-sideband (SSB) transmitter is
shown in Fig. 8-4. An oscillator signal
generates the carrier, which is then fed to the
buffer amplifier. The buffer amplifier supplies
the carrier input signal to the balanced
modulator.

• The audio amplifier and speech-processing

circuits provide the other input to the
balanced modulator. The balanced modulator
output—a DSB signal—is then fed to a
sideband filter that selects either the upper
or lower sideband.
Typically, the SSB signal is generated at a low RF. This makes the balanced
modulator and filter circuits simpler and easier to design. The mixer
translates the SSB signal to a higher desired frequency. The other input to
the mixer is derived from a local oscillator set at a frequency that, when
mixed with the SSB signal, produces the desired operating frequency.

For fixed operation, crystals can be used in this local oscillator. However,
in some equipment, such as that used by hams, a variable frequency
oscillator (VFO) is used to provide continuous tuning over a desired
range.

In most modern communication equipment, a frequency synthesizer is

used to set the final output frequency.
 Digital Transmitters
• Most modern digital radios such as cell phones use DSP
to produce the modulation and related processing of the
data to be transmitted. Refer to Fig. 8-5.

• The serial data representing the data to be transmitted is

sent to the DSP, which then generates two data streams
that are then converted to RF for transmission. The data
paths from the DSP chip are sent to DACs where they are
translated to equivalent analog signals.
The analog signals are filtered in a low-pass filter (LPF) and then applied to mixers
that will up-convert them to the final output frequency. The mixers receive their
second inputs from an oscillator or a frequency synthesizer that selects the
operating frequency.
 Carrier Generators

• The starting point for all transmitters is carrier

generation. Once generated, the carrier can be
modulated, processed in various ways, amplified
and finally transmitted. The source of most carriers
in modern transmitters is a crystal oscillator.

• PLL frequency synthesizers in which a crystal

oscillator is the basic stabilizing reference are used
in applications requiring multiple channels of
operation
 Crystal
Oscillators
• A crystal is a piece of quartz that has been cut and ground into
a thin, flat wafer and mounted between two metal plates.

• When the crystal is excited by an ac signal across its plates, it

vibrates. This action is referred to as the piezoelectric effect.
The frequency of vibration is determined primarily by the
thickness of the crystal. Other factors influencing frequency are
the cut of the crystal, and the size of the crystal wafer.

• Crystals frequencies range from as low as 30 kHz to as high as

150 MHz. As the crystal vibrates or oscillates, it maintains a
very constant frequency.
Example 1:
Example 2:
 Typical Crystal
Oscillator Circuits
• The most common crystal oscillator is a Colpitts type, in
which the feedback is derived from the capacitive voltage
divider made up of C1 and C2 . An emitter-follower
version is shown in Fig. 8-6.

• The feedback comes from the capacitor voltage divider

C1–C2 . The output is taken from the emitter, which is
untuned.

• Most oscillators of this type operate as class A amplifiers

with a sine wave output. JFETs are also widely used in
discrete component amplifiers.
 The capacitors are called crystal
pulling capacitors, and the whole
process of fine-tuning a crystal is
sometimes referred to as rubbering.
When the pulling capacitor is a
varactor, FM or FSK can be
produced.

 The analog or binary modulating

signal varies the varactor
capacitance that, in turn, shifts the
crystal frequency.
 Overtone
Oscillators
• Another way to achieve crystal precision and stability at
frequencies above 50 MHz is to use overtone crystals. An
overtone crystal is cut in a special way so that it optimizes its
oscillation at an overtone of the basic crystal frequency.

• An overtone is like a harmonic as it is usually some multiple of

the fundamental vibration frequency.

• Like a harmonic, an overtone is usually some integer multiple

of the base vibration frequency.
• The term overtone is often used as a synonym for harmonic. Most manufacturers refer to
their third overtone crystals as third harmonic crystals. The odd overtones are far greater
in amplitude than the even overtones.
• Most overtone crystals oscillate reliably at the third or fifth overtone of the frequency at
which the crystal is originally ground. Overtone crystals can be obtained with frequencies
up to about 250 MHz.
• Most crystal oscillators are circuits built into other integrated circuits. The crystal is
external to the IC. Another common form is that shown in Fig. 8-7, where the crystal and
oscillator circuit are fully packaged together as an IC.
 Frequency
Synthesizers
• Frequency synthesizers are variable-frequency generators that provide the frequency stability
of crystal oscillators but with the convenience of incremental tuning over a broad frequency
range. They provide an output signal that varies in fixed frequency increments over a wide
range.

• In a transmitter, a frequency synthesizer provides basic carrier generation for channelized

operation. They are also used in receivers as local oscillators and perform the receiver tuning
function. Using them overcomes certain cost and size disadvantages associated with crystals.
Phase-Locked Loop
Synthesizers
• An elementary frequency synthesizer based on a PLL is shown in Fig. 8-8. It consists of a
phase detector, a low-pass filter, and a VCO. The input to the phase detector is a
reference oscillator. The reference oscillator is normally crystal controlled to provide
high-frequency stability.

• The frequency of the reference oscillator sets the increments in which the frequency may
be changed. A frequency divider is a circuit whose output frequency is some integer
submultiple of the input frequency.

• A divide-by-10 frequency synthesizer produces an output frequency that is one-tenth of

the input frequency. Frequency dividers can be easily implemented with digital circuits to
provide any integer value of frequency division.
 A more complex PLL synthesizer, a circuit that generates VHF and UHF frequencies over the
100- to 500-MHz range, is shown in Fig. 8-9. This circuit uses a FET oscillator to generate the
carrier frequency directly. No frequency multipliers are needed.

 The output of the frequency synthesizer can be connected directly to the driver and power
amplifiers in the transmitter. This synthesizer has an output frequency in the 390-MHz range,
and the frequency can be varied in 30-kHz increments above and below that frequency.
 Direct Digital
Synthesis
• A newer form of frequency synthesis is known as direct digital
synthesis (DDS). A DDS synthesizer generates a sine wave output
digitally. The output frequency can be varied in increments
depending upon a binary value supplied to the unit by a counter, a
register, or an embedded microcontroller.

• Its basic concept is illustrated in Fig. 8-13. A read-only memory

(ROM) is programmed with the binary representation of a sine wave.
These are the values that would be generated by an analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter if an analog sine wave were digitized and stored in
the memory.
 A low-pass filter (LPF) is used to remove the high frequency content near the clock frequency,
thereby smoothing the ac output into a nearly perfect sine wave.
Advantages of DDS
synthesizer
If a sufficient number of bits of resolution in ROM word size and the accumulator size
are provided, the frequency can be varied in very fine increments. And because the
clock is crystal-controlled, the resulting sine wave output will have the accuracy and
precision of the crystal clock.

The frequency of the DDS synthesizer can usually be changed much faster than that
of a PLL synthesizer. The DDS synthesizer can change frequencies within
nanoseconds.
 Phase Noise
• An important specification and characteristic of any signal
(carrier) source, crystal oscillator, or frequency synthesizer is
phase noise. It is the minor variation in the amplitude and phase
of the signal generator output.

• It comes from natural semiconductor sources, power supply

variations, or thermal agitation in the components. The phase
variations manifest themselves as frequency variations.

• Although these variations are small, they can result in degraded

signals in both the transmitter and the receiver circuits.
• When looking at a sine wave carrier on a spectrum analyzer, what you should see is a single vertical
straight line, its amplitude representing the signal power and it horizontal position representing the
carrier frequency (Fig. 8-19a).
• However, because of signal distortion or noise, what you actually see is the carrier signal
accompanied by sidebands around the carrier made up of harmonics and phase noise components
(Fig. 8-19b). Serious harmonic distortion can be filtered out, but the phase noise cannot.
• Phase noise is designated as L(f) and represents the single sideband power
referenced to the carrier. It is calculated and measured as the ratio of the
average noise power (Pn ) in a 1 Hz bandwidth at a point offset from the
carrier to the carrier signal power (Pc ) expressed in dBc /Hz. The average
noise power is referred to as the spectral power density

Fig. 8-20 shows a plot of the phase noise. Note that the noise power is averaged
over a narrow 1-Hz bandwidth. The location of that 1-Hz window is offset from
the carrier.
• The phase noise is measured at different offset values from 1 kHz to 10 MHz or more,
depending on the frequencies involved, the modulation type, and the application. Close-
in phase noise is in the 1-kHz to 10-kHz range, whereas far-out phase noise is offset by 1
MHz or more.
 Power
Amplifiers
• The three basic types of power amplifiers used in
transmitters are linear, class C, and switching.

• Linear amplifiers provide an output signal that is an

identical, enlarged replica of the input. Their output is
directly proportional to their input, and they therefore
faithfully reproduce an input, but at a higher power level.

• Most audio amplifiers are linear. Linear RF amplifiers are

used to increase the power level of variable-amplitude RF
signals such as low-level AM or SSB signals.
Most modern digital modulation techniques such as spread
spectrum, QAM and orthogonal frequency division multiplex
(OFDM) require linear amplification to retain the modulating
signal information. Linear amplifiers are class A, AB, or B. The
class of an amplifier indicates how it is biased.

Class A amplifiers are biased so that they conduct continuously.

The bias is set so that the input varies the collector (or drain)
current over a linear region of the transistor’s characteristics.
Thus, its output is an amplified linear reproduction of the input.
Usually, we say that the class A amplifier conducts for 360° of an
input sine wave.
Class B amplifiers are biased at cutoff so that no collector current
flows with zero input. The transistor conducts on only one-half, or
180°, of the sine wave input. This means that only one-half of the
sine wave is amplified. Normally, two class B amplifiers are
connected in a push-pull arrangement so that both the positive
and negative alternations of the input are amplified.

Class AB linear amplifiers are biased near cutoff with some

continuous collector current flow. They conduct for more than
180° but less than 360° of the input. They too are used
primarily in push-pull amplifiers and provide better linearity
than class B amplifiers, but with less efficiency.
Class A amplifiers are linear but not very efficient. For that reason, they
make poor power amplifiers. As a result, they are used primarily as
small-signal voltage amplifiers or for low-power amplifications.

Class B amplifiers are more efficient than class A amplifiers, because

current flows for only a portion of the input signal, and they make good
power amplifiers. However, they distort an input signal because they
conduct for only one-half of the cycle. Therefore, special techniques are
often used to eliminate or compensate for the distortion.
Class C amplifiers conduct for even less than one-half of the
sine wave input cycle, making them very efficient. The resulting
highly distorted current pulse is used to ring a tuned circuit to
create a continuous sine wave output.

They cannot be used to amplify varying-amplitude signals. They

will clip off or otherwise distort an AM or SSB signal. However,
FM signals do not vary in amplitude and can therefore be
amplified with more efficient nonlinear class C amplifiers. This
type of amplifier also makes a good frequency multiplier as
harmonics are generated in the amplification process.
Switching amplifiers act like on/off or digital switches. They effectively
generate a square wave output. Such a distorted output is undesirable;
however, by using high-Q tuned circuits in the output, the harmonics
generated as part of the switching process can be easily filtered out.

The on/off switching action is highly efficient because current flows

during only one-half of the input cycle, and when it does, the voltage
drop across the transistor is very low, resulting
 Linear
Amplifiers
• Class A Buffers. A simple class A buffer
amplifier (Fig. 8-21) is used between the
carrier oscillator and the final power
amplifier to isolate the oscillator from the
power amplifier load, which can change the
oscillator frequency.
• It also provides a modest power increase to
provide the driving power required by the
final amplifier. Such circuits usually provide
milliwatts of power and rarely more than
1 W.
High-Power Linear Amplifiers
A high-power class A linear amplifier is shown in Fig. 8-22. Base bias is supplied
by a constant-current circuit that is temperature-compensated.

The RF input from a 50-V source is connected to the base via an impedance-
matching circuit made up of C1 , C2 , and L1 . The output is matched to a 50-V
load by the impedance-matching network made up of L2 , L3 , C3 , and C4 .

When connected to a proper heat sink, the transistor can generate up to 100 W
of power up to about 200 MHz. The amplifier is designed for a specific frequency
that is set by the input and output tuned circuits.
Class B Push-Pull Amplifiers
• A class B linear power amplifier using push-pull is shown in Fig. 8-23. The RF driving
signal is applied to Q1 and Q2 through input transformer T1 . It provides impedance-
matching and base drive signals to Q1 and Q2 that are 180° out of phase.

• An output transformer T2 couples the power to the antenna or load. Bias is provided by
R1 and D1 . For class B operation, Q1 and Q2 must be biased right at the cutoff point.

• The circuit is an untuned broadband circuit that can amplify signals over a broad
frequency range, typically from 2 to 30 MHz. With push-pull circuits, power levels of up
to 1 kW are possible.
• Fig. 8-24 shows another push-pull RF power
amplifier. It uses two power MOSFETs, can
produce an output up to 1 kW over the 10- to
90-MHz range, and has a 12-dB power gain.
The RF input driving power must be 63 W to
produce the full 1-kW output.

• Toroidal transformers T1 and T2 are used at

the input and output for impedance
matching. They provide broadband operation
over the 10- to 90-MHz range without tuning.
Class C Amplifiers
1. The key circuit in most AM and FM transmitters is the class C amplifier. They are
used for power amplification in the form of drivers, frequency multipliers, and
final amplifiers. They are biased, so they conduct for less than 180° of the input.

2. A class C amplifier typically has a conduction angle of 90° to 150°. Current flows
through it in short pulses, and a resonant tuned circuit is used for complete
signal amplification.
Biasing Methods
• Fig. 8-25(a) shows one way of biasing a class C amplifier. The base of the
transistor is simply connected to ground through a resistor.

• No external bias voltage is applied. An RF signal to be amplified is applied

directly to the base. The transistor conducts on the positive half-cycles of
the input wave and is cut off on the negative half-cycles.

• The emitter-base junction does not really conduct until the base is more
positive than the emitter by 0.7 V. Because of this, the transistor has an
inherent built-in reverse bias.
• Another biasing method is shown in Fig. 8-26(c). As in
the circuit shown in Fig. 8-26(a), the bias is derived
from the signal. This arrangement is known as the self-
bias method.

• When current flows in the transistor, a voltage is

developed across R1 . Capacitor C1 is charged and
holds the voltage constant. This makes the emitter
more positive than the base, which has the same
effect as a negative voltage on the base.

• A strong input signal is required for proper operation.

Tuned Output Circuits

• All class C amplifiers have some form of tuned circuit connected in the
collector (Fig. 8-27). The primary purpose of this tuned circuit is to form the
complete ac sine wave output.

• A parallel-tuned circuit rings, or oscillates, at its resonant frequency whenever

it receives a dc pulse. The pulse charges the capacitor, which, in turn,
discharges into the inductor. The magnetic field in the inductor increases and
then collapses, inducing a voltage which then recharges the capacitor in the
opposite direction.
This exchange of energy between the inductor and the capacitor, called the
flywheel effect, produces a damped sine wave at the resonant frequency.
 Frequency
Multipliers
• Any class C amplifier is capable of performing frequency
multiplication if the tuned circuit in the collector resonates
at some integer multiple of the input frequency.

• A frequency doubler can be constructed by simply

connecting a parallel-tuned circuit in the collector of a class
C amplifier that resonates at twice the input frequency.
When the collector current pulse occurs, it excites or rings
the tuned circuit at twice the input frequency. A current
pulse flows for every other cycle of the input.
A tripler circuit is constructed in exactly the same way, except that the tuned
circuit resonates at three times the input frequency, receiving one input pulse for
every 3 cycles of oscillation it produces (Fig. 8-28).
• In many applications, a multiplication factor
greater than that achievable with a single
multiplier stage is required. In such cases, two or
more multipliers are cascaded (Fig. 8-29).

• In the first case, multipliers of 2 and 3 are

cascaded to produce an overall multiplication of
6. In the second, three multipliers provide an
overall multiplication of 30.

• The total multiplication factor is the product of

the multiplication factors of the individual stages.
Efficiency
• A key specification for all RF power amplifiers, especially linear amplifiers, is their
efficiency. Efficiency is simply the ratio of the amplifier power output (Po ) to the total DC
power (Pdc) used to produce the output, or:

 It is the mathematical percentage of DC input power that is converted into RF power. The
ideal is 100% which cannot be achieved. Most amplifier designs emphasize good
efficiency where possible.

 Good efficiency means less overall power consumption. Any power not converted to RF is
lost as heat dissipated in the power transistors
• Another measure of efficiency is called power-added
efficiency (PAE), which takes into consideration the
amount of input power needed to drive a higher-
power amplifier to maximum output

Some high-power amplifiers, especially in the

VHF/UHF/microwave range, require high driving power,
which adds to the overall efficiency rating.
• Table 8-1 is a summary of the theoretical and practical efficiencies that can
be obtained with the basic linear power amplifiers.
 Switching Power
Amplifiers
• A switching amplifier is a transistor that is used as a switch
and is either conducting or nonconducting. Both bipolar
transistors and enhancement mode MOSFETs are widely
used in switching-amplifier applications.

• A bipolar transistor as a switch is either cut off or saturated.

When it is cut off, no power is dissipated. When it is
saturated, current flow is maximum, but the emitter-
collector voltage is extremely low, usually less than 1 V. As a
result, power dissipation is extremely low.
• The use of switching power amplifiers permits efficiencies of
over 90%. The current variations in a switching power
amplifier are square waves and thus harmonics are generated.
However, these are relatively easy to filter out by the use of
tuned circuits and filters between the power amplifier and the
antenna.

• The three basic types of switching power amplifiers, class D,

class E, and class S, were originally developed for high-power
audio applications. But with the availability of high-power,
high-frequency switching transistors, they are now widely used
in radio transmitter design.
 • A class D amplifier uses a pair of transistors to produce a
Class D square wave current in a tuned circuit. Fig. 8-30 shows
the basic configuration of a class D amplifier. Two
Amplifiers switches are used to apply both positive and negative dc
voltages to a load through the tuned circuit.
 Class E & F
Amplifiers
• In class E amplifiers, only a single
transistor is used. Both bipolar and
MOSFETs can be used, although the
MOSFET is preferred because of its low
drive requirements.

• Fig. 8-32 shows a typical class E RF

amplifier. The carrier, which may initially
be a sine wave, is applied to a shaping
circuit that effectively converts it to a
square wave. The carrier is usually
frequency-modulated.
• A class F amplifier is a variation of the class E
amplifier. It contains an additional resonant network
in the collector or drain circuit.

• This circuit, a lumped LC or even a tuned transmission

line at microwave frequencies, is resonant at the
second or third harmonic of the operating frequency.
The result is a waveform at the collector (drain) that
more closely resembles a square wave.

• The steeper waveform produces faster transistor

switching and better efficiency.
Class S Amplifiers
• Class S amplifiers, which use switching techniques but with a scheme of pulse-width
modulation, are found primarily in audio applications but have also been used in low-
and medium-frequency RF amplifiers such as those used in AM broadcast transmitters.

• The low-level audio signal to be amplified is applied to a circuit called a pulse-width

modulator. A carrier signal at a frequency 5 to 10 times the highest audio frequency to be
amplified is also applied to the pulse-width modulator. At the output of the modulator is
a series of constant-amplitude pulses whose pulse width or duration varies with the
audio signal amplitude.
 Impedance-
Matching Networks
• The circuits used to connect one stage to another. In
most cases, they are LC circuits, transformers, or some
combination.

• Its basic function is to provide for an optimum transfer

of power through impedance-matching techniques.
They also provide filtering and selectivity.

• In class C, D, and E amplifiers, a considerable number of

high-amplitude harmonics are generated which are
eliminated by the impedance-matching networks used
for interstage coupling.
 LC Impedance-
Matching Networks

• L networks consist of an inductor and a capacitor

connected in various L-shaped configurations (Fig.
8-38). The circuits in Fig. 8-38(a) and (b) are low-
pass filters; those in Fig. 8-38(c) and (d) are high-
pass filters.

• Typically, low-pass networks are preferred so that

harmonic frequencies are filtered out. The L-
matching network is designed so that the load
impedance is matched to the source impedance. F
 LC Impedance-
Matching Networks
• The network in Fig. 8-38(a) causes the load resistance to appear larger than it actually is.
The load resistance ZL appears in series with the inductor of the L network. They are
chosen to resonate at the transmitter frequency. When the circuit is at resonance, XL = XC.

• By using the L network (Fig. 8-39b), the impedance can be stepped down, or made to
appear much smaller than it actually is. The parallel combination of C and Z L has an
equivalent series RC combination. Both C and ZL appear as equivalent series values Ceq
and Zeq.

• The result is that the overall network appears as a series resonant circuit, which has a
very low impedance at resonance. The impedance is the equivalent load impedance Z eq,
which is resistive.
• The design equations for L networks are given in Fig. 8-39. Assuming
that the internal source and load impedances are resistive, Zi = Ri and
ZL = RL. The network in Fig. 8-39(a) assumes RL < Ri , and the network
in Fig. 8-39(b) assumes Ri < RL.

Example:
• Suppose we wish to match a 6-Ω transistor amplifier impedance to a
50-Ω antenna load at 155 MHz. In this case, Ri < RL, so we use the
formulas in Fig. 8-38(b).
• In most cases, internal and stray reactances make the internal impedance and
load impedances complex, rather than purely resistive. Fig. 8-40 shows an
example. Here the internal resistance is 6 Ω, but it includes an internal
inductance Li of 8 nH. There is a stray capacitance CL of 8.65 pF across the load.
The way to deal with these reactances is simply to combine them with the L
network values.
 T and π Networks

• The three most widely used impedance matching networks

containing three reactive components are illustrated in Fig.
8-41. The network in Fig. 8-41(a) is known as a π network
because its configuration resembles the Greek letter π.

• The circuit in Fig. 8-41(b) is known as a T network because

the circuit elements resemble the letter T. The circuit in Fig.
8-41(c) is also a T network, but it uses two capacitors.
The π and T networks can be designed to either step up or step down the impedance as required by the circuit. The
capacitors are usually made variable so that the circuit can be tuned to resonance and adjusted for maximum power
output.
 T and π Networks
• The most widely used of these circuits is the T network of Fig. 8-41(c). Often called
an LCC network, it is used to match the low output impedance of a transistor power
amplifier to the higher impedance of another amplifier or an antenna. The design
procedure and formulas are given in Fig. 8-42.

• Suppose once again that a 6-Ω source Ri is to be matched to a 50-Ω load RL at 155
MHz. Assume a Q of 10. (For class C operation, a Q of 10 is the absolute minimum
needed for satisfactory suppression of the harmonics.) To configure the LCC network,
the inductance is calculated first.
 Transformers
and Baluns
• One of the best impedance-matching components is the
transformer. Iron-core transformers are widely used at
lower frequencies to match one impedance to another.

• Any load impedance can be made to look like a desired

load impedance by selecting the correct value of the
transformer turns ratio.

• Transformers can be connected in unique combinations

called baluns to match impedances.
Transformer Impedance
Matching
• Refer to Fig. 8-43. The relationship between the turns ratio and the
input and output impedances is

• That is, the ratio of the input impedance Zi to the load impedance ZL is
equal to the square of the ratio of the number of turns on the primary
NP to the number of turns on the secondary NS.
Example:
• Match a generator impedance of 6 Ω to a 50-Ω load impedance, the turns
ratio is

• This means that there are 2.89 times as many turns on the secondary as on
the primary.
• The most widely used type of core for RF transformers is the toroid. A toroid is a
circular, doughnut-shaped core, usually made of a special type of powdered iron.
Copper wire is wound on the toroid to create the primary and secondary windings. A
typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 8-44.

• Single-winding tapped coils called autotransformers are also used for impedance
matching between RF stages. Fig. 8-45 shows impedance step-down and step-up
arrangements. Toroids are commonly used in autotransformers.
• Toroid transformers cause the magnetic field produced
by the primary to be completely contained within the
core itself.

2 Important Advantages

Toroid does not radiate RF energy; it confines all the

magnetic fields and does not require shields.

Most of the magnetic field produced by the primary

cuts the turns of the secondary winding. Thus, the
basic turns ratio, input-output voltage, and impedance
formulas for standard low-frequency transformers
apply to high-frequency toroid transformers.
 In most new RF designs, toroid transformers are used for RF impedance
matching between stages; the primary and secondary windings are
sometimes used as inductors in tuned circuits.
 Toroid inductors can be built. Powdered iron-core toroid inductors have an
advantage over air-core inductors for RF applications because the high
permeability of the core causes the inductance to be high.

 Powdered iron toroids are so effective that they have virtually replaced air-
core coils in most modern transmitter designs.
 Transmission Line Transformers
and Baluns

• It is a unique type of transformer that is widely used in power

amplifiers for coupling between stages and impedance
matching. It is usually constructed by winding two parallel wires
(or a twisted pair) on a toroid (Fig. 8-46).

• The length of the winding is typically less than 1/8 wavelength

at the lowest operating frequency. It acts as a 1:1 transformer at
the lower frequencies but more as a transmission line at the
highest operating frequency.
 Transformers can be connected in unique ways to provide fixed impedance-
matching characteristics over a wide range of frequencies.

 One of the most widely used configurations (Fig. 8-47), where a transformer is
usually wound on a toroid, and the numbers of primary and secondary turns are
equal, giving the transformer a 1:1 turns ratio and a 1:1 impedance-matching
ratio.
 A transformer connected in this way is generally known as a balun (from balanced-
unbalanced) because such transformers are normally used to connect a balanced
source to an unbalanced load or vice versa.

 In the circuit of Fig. 8-47(a), a balanced generator is connected to an unbalanced

(grounded) load. In Fig. 8-47(b), an unbalanced (grounded) generator is connected
to a balanced load.

 Fig. 8-48 shows two ways in which a 1:1 turns ratio balun can be used for
impedance matching. With the arrangement shown in Fig. 8-47(a), an impedance
step up is obtained.
A load impedance of four times the source impedance Zi provides a correct match. The
balun makes the load of 4Zi look like Zi . In Fig. 8-48(b), an impedance step down is
obtained. The balun makes the load ZL look like Zi /4.
Solve the given problems:

1. Consider the design of a magnetic transformer that will match

the 3Ω output resistance of a power amplifier (this is the source) to
a 50Ω load. The secondary of the transformer is on the load side.
2. What is the ratio of the number of primary turns to the number of
secondary turns for ideal matching?
3. If the transformer ratio could be implemented exactly), what is the
reflection coefficient normalized to 3Ω looking into the primary of
the transformer with the 50Ω load?
4. What is the ideal return loss of the loaded transformer (looking into
the primary)? Express your answer in dB.
5. If there are 100 secondary windings, how many primary windings
are there in your design? Note that the number of windings must
be an integer.
6. What is the input resistance of the transformer looking into the
primary?
References:
• Blake, Roy. (2018). Electronic Communication Systems, Paperback International Edition. Cengage, India

• Frenzel, Louise Jr, E. (2016). Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, 4 th Edition. McGraw Hill Education,
New York

• Tomasi, Wayne. (2019). Advanced Electronic Communications Systems, 6 th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. New
Jersey

• Steer, Michael. LibreTextsEngineering. Retrieved January 6, 2021, from

https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electrical_Engineering/Electronics/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Microwave_
and_RF_Design_(Steer)/10%3A_Impedance_Matching/10.09%3A_Exercises