COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT-I
WHAT IS COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is a group of two or
more interconnected computer systems.
 we can establish a network connection

using either cable or wireless media.

.
Uses of Computer Networks

 Helps you to share resource such as printers

 Allows you to share expensive software’s and
database among network participants
 Provides fast and effective communication from
one computer to another computer
 Helps you to exchange data and
information among users via a network.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING

 Helps you to connect with multiple computers

together to send and receive information when
accessing the network.
 Helps you to share printers, scanners, and email.
 Helps you to share information at very fast speed
 Electronic communication is more efficient and
less expensive than without the network.
 TYPES OF NETWORKS
 LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small
geographical area, like a home, office, or building.
 WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers a large
geographical area, like cities, countries, or even
continents. The internet is the largest WAN.
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a city
or large campus.
 PAN (Personal Area Network): Used for devices
like smart phones, tablets, and laptops within a
small area (e.g., Bluetooth connections).
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

 Network: A network is a collection of computers

and devices that are connected together to enable
communication and data exchange.
 Nodes: It refers to any physical device or endpoint
that is connected to a network and can send,
receive, or forward information.
 computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other
devices.

 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards

that govern how data is transmitted over a network.
CONTD..

 Topology: Network topology refers to the physical

and logical arrangement of nodes on a network.
 Service Provider Networks: These types of
Networks give permission to take Network Capacity
and Functionality on lease from the Provider.
 IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical
identifier that is assigned to every device on a
network. IP addresses are used to identify devices
and enable communication between them.
CONTD..
 DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a
protocol that is used to translate human-
readable domain names into IP addresses
that computers can understand.
(www.google.com)
 Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is
used to monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic.
NETWORK HARDWARE

 Network hardware is a set of physical or

network devices that are essential for
interaction and communication between hardware
units operational on a computer network.
 These are some dedicated hardware components
that connect to each other and enable a network
to function effectively and efficiently.
NETWORK DEVICES
 Repeaters: A repeater receives a signal and regenerates it
before re-transmitting so that it can travel longer distances.
 Hubs: A hub is a multiport repeater having several
input/output ports.
 Switches: A switch receives data from a port, uses packet
switching to resolve the destination device and then forwards
the data to the particular destination.
 Network Cables : Transmission media to transfer data
from one device to another. As: Cat5 cable with RJ – 45
connector.

 Routers : A connecting device that transfers data packets

between different computer networks.
 Bridges: A bridge connects two separate Ethernet
network segments. It forwards packets from the
source network to the destined network.

 Gateways: A gateway connects entirely different

networks that work upon different protocols.

 Network Interface Cards: NIC is a component of the

computer to connect it to a network.
 Internal network cards and
 external network cards
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
 Network topology refers to the arrangement of
different elements like nodes, links, and devices in
a computer network.
 It defines how these components are connected
and interact with each other.
The various network topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology

 Mesh Topology

 Star Topology

 Bus Topology

 Ring Topology

 Tree Topology
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Types of network topologies
 POINT TO POINT TOPOLOGY
 It is a type of topology that works on the
functionality of the sender and receiver.
 It is the simplest communication between two

nodes, in which one is the sender and the other

one is the receiver.
 Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
ADVANTAGES
 Simplicity: It's easy to configure and manage
because it's simple. It's also simple to use and
keep clean.
 Security: It's secure because there are only two
nodes with no intermediate devices.
 Efficiency: It's efficient because it provides high
bandwidth.
 Data transmission: It can transmit data faster
and reduce network latency.
MESH TOPOLOGY
 In a mesh topology, every device is connected
to another device via a particular channel.
 Link the computers via various redundant connections.
 Numerous routes from one computer to another.
 No use of switch, hub, serves as a point of communication.
 In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc

Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol), etc.

 ADVANTAGES
 Consistent: Reliable because any link failure does not disrupt
interaction.
 High-speed information exchange: Communication between nodes
is extremely fast.
 Easier reconfiguration: Adding new devices without interfere.

 DISADVANTAGES
 Cost: Expensive.
 High-maintenance: Extensive and challenging to maintain and
STAR TOPOLOGY
 All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

ADVANTAGES
 Network failure prevention: Only the affected
nodes will fail.
 Performance: High performance with a small

number of nodes.
 Upgradation: Adding, deleting, and moving devices

simple.

DISADVANTAGES
 Expensive: The cost of installing is high.
 Slow connection: Heavy network traffic can sometimes
significantly slow the bus.
 BUS TOPOLOGY
Bus topology is a type of network topology where all
devices are connected to a central cable called a Bus
 KEY POINTS OF BUS TOPOLOGY
 Single Backbone
 Linear Structure
 Terminators
 Data Transmission in both directions
 Collision Detection
 Cost-Effective
 Limited Fault Tolerance
 Limited Privacy and Security
 Commonly Used in Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
 IEEE 802.3 is called Ethernet.
 it is a bus-based broadcast network with
decentralized control, usually operating at 10Mbps
to 10 Gbps
RING TOPOLOGY
Devices are connected in a closed loop, with each device connected
to two other devices.
 Each computer is linked to another on both sides.
 The last computer is linked to the first, forming a ring.
 Each computer to have exactly two neighbours.
 Advantages
 Token system: Only nodes that have tokens can transfer data.
 Less Cabling: Every node manages the cable to its closest
neighbour,
 it requires less cabling.
 Easier troubleshooting: Easy to manage and install.

 Disadvantages
 Difficult to upgrade: Adding or removing nodes is problematic.
 Failure of a network: When one system crashes, it disturbs the
overall network activity.
TREE TOPOLOGY
 Devices are connected in a hierarchical structure, with a central
hub or switch at the top and sub-hubs or switches.
 Advantages of Tree Topology
 Structuring: Structuring as the tree-like shape
 Interconnection: connect to the large and intermediate networks.
 Expansion of nodes: An increase of nodes is possible and easily
achievable.

 Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Expensive: Cabling costs will rise.
 Network failure: If the primary central node or another wire fails,
 all other nodes may become disconnected
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
 Hybrid topology is a combination of two or more of the basic
topologies.
 Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 Multiple advantages: Advantages of various topologies into a
single topology.
 Scalable: Hybrid networks are easily scalable, easily integrate
the new hardware components.
 Traffic: handle a high traffic volume while remaining
extremely flexible and dependable.

 Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

 Expensive: topology is quite expensive.
 Complex design: Creating a hybrid topology is a difficult task.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
 Network software is defined as a wide range of software that
streamlines the operations, design, monitoring, and
implementation of computer networks.
Operating Windows, Linux, macOS, and various specialized network
Systems (OS) operating systems
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol),
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer
Network Protocols
Protocol)
DNS (Domain Name System) servers for name resolution, DHCP (Dynamic
Network Services Host Configuration Protocol) servers for IP address assignment, and SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) servers for email

Network Management SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is a common

Software protocol used for network management

Protect the network by filtering incoming and outgoing traffic based

Firewall Software
on defined security policies

Router and Switch

Operating Systems Cisco's IOS (Internetwork Operating System) and Juniper's Junos

Remote Access Virtual Private Network (VPN) software,Network

Software Diagnostics Tools:
 FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK
SOFTWARE
 User management: Allows administrators to add or remove
users from the network.

 File management: Lets administrators decide the location of

data storage and control user access to that data.

 Access: enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network

resources.

 Network security systems: Assist administrators in looking

after security and preventing data breaches.
Applications of Networks
 Resource Sharing
 Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
 Software (application software)
 Information Sharing
 Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
 Search Capability (WWW)
 Communication
 email
 Message broadcast
 Remote computing
 Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
NETWORK CRITERIA
Most of the networks meets following criteria
 Performance
 Transit & response time
 Type of transmission medium,
 Capability of connected devices
 Efficiency of software
 Throughout and delay

 Reliability
 Frequency of Failure and recovery
 Network robustness

 Security
 Protecting data and unauthorized access
 Data recovery
 DATA FLOW
Transmission direction of signal flow between two connected
devices.
 Simplex,
The communication
between sender and
receiver occurs in only one
direction.

 Half-duplex
The communication
between sender and
receiver occurs in both
directions, but only one at
a time.

 Full-duplex
The communication
CONCLUSION
 A network is a combination of hardware and software
that sends data from one location to another.

 The hardware consists of the physical equipment that

carries signals from one point of the network to another.

 The software consists of instruction sets that make

possible the services that we expect from a network.
REFERENCE
MODELS
 REFERENCE MODELS
 Reference models give a conceptual framework that
standardizes communication between heterogeneous networks.
Two popular reference models are: −

 OSI Model
 Grant by ISO
 Introduce in 1970
 Layered framework for
design network

 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 First defined by Cerf and Kahn,
1974
DATA FLOW IN OSI MODEL
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step
process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable
delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next
device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted
physically.
OSI REFERENCE MODEL

 OSI or Open System

Interconnection model was
developed by International
Standards Organization (ISO).

 It has seven interconnected layers.

Layered
Architecture
 THE SEVEN LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL
 Physical Layer (Layer 1):
Function: Deals with the physical connection between
devices. It is responsible for transmitting raw binary data
(bits) over a physical medium, such as cables, radio
waves, or fiber optics. Examples: Ethernet cables, radio
frequencies, network interface cards (NICs), hubs.
DATA LINK LAYER (LAYER 2):

Function: Provides node-to-node data transfer and

handles error detection and correction. It organizes bits
into frames and ensures that these frames are error-free.

 Sub-layers: The Data Link Layer is often divided into

two sub-layers:
 MAC (Media Access Control): Controls how devices in
a network gain access to the medium and permission

to transmit data.
 LLC (Logical Link Control): Handles error-checking
and frame synchronization.
 Examples: MAC addresses, Ethernet, switches, bridges.
NETWORK LAYER (LAYER 3):

Function: Manages the routing of data packets between

devices across different networks. It determines the best
path for data transfer and handles logical addressing
(such as IP addresses).
Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), routers, IPv4/IPv6.
TRANSPORT LAYER (LAYER 4):
Function: Ensures complete data transfer between
devices. It is responsible for error recovery, flow control,
and ensuring that data is delivered in sequence.
Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User
Datagram Protocol), ports.
SESSION LAYER (LAYER 5):
 Function: Manages and controls the connections (sessions)
between computers. It establishes, maintains, and
terminates connections between applications.
 Examples: Session management protocols, remote
procedure calls (RPCs).
PRESENTATION LAYER (LAYER 6):
Function: Translates data between the application layer and
the network format. It handles data encryption,
compression, and translation, ensuring that data is in a
usable format.
 Examples: SSL/TLS encryption, data formats like JPEG,
ASCII, EBCDIC.
APPLICATION LAYER (LAYER 7):
Function: Provides network services directly to the end-user.
It facilitates communication between software applications
and lower layers.
Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, web browsers, email
clients.
Scenario: Sending an Email Using Gmail
 Application Layer (Layer 7):
 The user composes an email in their Gmail interface and
clicks "Send."
 The Gmail application uses protocols like SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol) to prepare the email for
transmission over the network.
 Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
 The data (email content) is translated into a network-
compatible format, which might involve encoding the
email into a standard format like ASCII or encrypting it
using SSL/TLS for secure transmission.
 Session Layer (Layer 5):
A session is established between the user's device
(client) and the Gmail server to manage the
communication. The session layer ensures that the
session remains open long enough for the email to be
sent, and then it terminates the session when the task
is complete.
 Transport Layer (Layer 4):
 The transport layer uses TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) to break the email data into smaller
segments. TCP ensures that the data is delivered
reliably, in the correct order, and without errors. It also
manages the flow control and retransmission of lost
 Network Layer (Layer 3):
 The segments are encapsulated into packets, with each packet
being assigned a source and destination IP address. The network
layer determines the best route for the packets to travel from the
user's device to the Gmail server across multiple networks.
 Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
 The network layer packets are further encapsulated into frames.
Each frame includes the MAC (Media Access Control) address of
the source and destination devices. The data link layer ensures
that frames are delivered to the correct device on the local
network.
 Physical Layer (Layer 1):
 Finally, the frames are converted into electrical, radio, or light
signals (depending on the medium) and transmitted over the
physical medium, such as an Ethernet cable or Wi-Fi signal, to the
next device in the network path.
LAYERED
TASK
REFERENCE MODEL
TCP/IP
OSI REFERENCE TCP/IP
MODEL Protocol
Suite
Application Layer

HTTP,DNS,DHCP,
Presentation Layer Application Layer
FTP

Session Layer

Transport Layer TCP , UDP Transport Layer

IPv4,IPv6,ICMPv4,
Network Layer Internet Layer
ICMPv6

Data Link Layer

PPP, Frame Relay,
Network Access
Ethernet
Physical Layer
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 TCP/IP model was developed in the early 1970s by
the United States Department of Defense's
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
as part of the ARPANET project, which was the
precursor to the modern Internet.
 The design of the TCP/IP protocols, including TCP
and IP, was largely completed by 1978, and the
suite was fully implemented and in wide use by
the early 1980s.
 It is responsible for the protocols that interact
directly with user applications.
Application It manages data exchange between software
Layer
applications and lower layers
 Protocols: HTTP ,SMTP, DNS

 It provides reliable or unreliable data transfer

between devices & ensures complete data transfer
 It handles error correction, data flow control, and
Transport
Layer segmentation.
 Protocols: TCP provides reliable, connection-
oriented communication. UDP provides a faster,
connectionless service without guarantees.
 It routes packets across network boundaries,
ensuring that data packets are sent to the correct
destination IP address
It handles logical addressing, packet forwarding, and
Internet
Layer routing.
Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol).

It manages the physical transmission of data over

network media
It handles hardware addressing (like MAC addresses)
Network & defines how data is transmitted over various physical
Access
mediums such as cables, wireless signals, etc.
Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol).
 TCP/IP OSI
 TCP refers to Transmission Control  OSI refers to Open Systems
Protocol. Interconnection.

 TCP/IP uses both the session and

 OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application
presentation layers.
layer itself.

 TCP/IP follows connectionless a

 OSI follows a vertical approach.
horizontal approach.

 The Transport layer in TCP/IP does  In the OSI model, the transport
not provide assurance delivery of layer provides assurance delivery of
packets. packets.

 While in the OSI model, Protocols

 Protocols cannot be replaced
are better covered and are easy to
easily in TCP/IP model.
replace with the technology change.

 TCP/IP model network layer only

Connectionless and connection-
provides connectionless (IP)
oriented services are provided by
services. The transport layer (TCP)
the network layer in the OSI model.
provides connections.
EXAMPLE NETWORKS : ARPANET
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network) :
 It was the pioneering network that laid the
foundation for the modern Internet.
 It was developed in the late 1960s by the United
States Department of Defense's Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA), now known as DARPA.
 The first ARPANET connection was established on
October 29, 1969, between the University of
First California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and the Stanford
ARPANET
Connection Research Institute (SRI).
(1969)  The first message sent was supposed to be
"LOGIN," but the system crashed after the first two
letters, so the actual first message was "LO."
By the end of 1969, ARPANET expanded to four nodes,
Expansion connecting:
to Four  University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
 Stanford Research Institute (SRI)
Nodes
 University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB)
(1969)  University of Utah

Introduction NCP was the first host-to-host protocol used on

of Network
ARPANET.
Control
Protocol It provided the basis for communication between
(NCP) (1970)
computers on the network.
  Ray Tomlinson, a programmer on ARPANET, sent the
first email in 1971.
Email  He also introduced the "@" symbol to separate the
(1971)
user's name from the computer name in an email
address.

On January 1, 1983, ARPANET officially switched from

ARPANET's
the NCP protocol to the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Transition
to TCP/IP This day is known as "Flag Day" and marks the
(1983) beginning of the modern Internet.

Event: ARPANET was officially decommissioned in 1990,

Decommissi
having been overtaken by the rapidly expanding Internet.
oning of
ARPANET Significance: Although ARPANET was shut down, its legacy
(1990) lives on in the design and protocols of the Internet.
GROWTH OF ARPANET IN 3YEARS
 INTERNET: BRIEF HISTORY OF THE
INTERNET:
 1960s: The concept of the Internet began with ARPANET, a project
funded by the U.S. Department of Defense, which was designed to
enable reliable communication between computers.
 1970s: The development of TCP/IP protocols by Vint Cerf and Bob
Kahn provided the foundation for global data exchange.
 1980s: ARPANET expanded and was gradually connected to other
networks, laying the groundwork for the global Internet. The domain
name system (DNS) was introduced in 1983.
 1990s: The World Wide Web was developed, popularizing the Internet.
The Internet became accessible to the general public, leading to a
massive increase in users and content.
 2000s-Present: The Internet became ubiquitous, with mobile
devices, social media, streaming services, and cloud computing
becoming dominant. It now connects billions of people worldwide.
PHYSICAL
LAYER
 PHYSICAL LAYER
 Guided Transmission media:
 twisted pairs
 coaxial cable
 fiber optics
 Wireless Transmission
 GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

 The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from

one machine to another.
 Various physical media can be used for the actual
transmission. Each one has its own niche in terms of
bandwidth, delay, cost, and ease of installation and
maintenance.
 Media are roughly grouped into guided media : copper wire
and fiber optics,
 Twisted Pairs
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optics
 Unguided media:- terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers
through the air.
 Wireless Transmission Media
 Radio Transmission

 TWISTED PAIR
 A twisted pair cable is a type of cable made by putting two separate
insulated wires together in a twisted pattern and running them
parallel to each other for the purpose of improving electromagnetic
compatibility.
 By twisting the wires, some part of the noise signals goes in one
direction (sending) while the other part goes in the opposite
direction (receiving).
 This twisting helps dampen the magnetic effect on the wires,
and the external waves cancel out due to the different twists.
 Compared to a single conductor or an untwisted balanced
pair, a twisted pair reduces electromagnetic radiation from
the pair and crosstalk between neighboring pairs and
improves rejection of external electromagnetic interference.
 A twisted pair cable is used for connecting
computers, switches, routers, printers, IP
cameras, and PoE devices in a LAN.
COAXIAL CABLE
 Coaxial cable is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by
an insulating layer, surrounded by conductive shielding (outer conductor),
and a protective outer jacket.
 Coaxial cable is commonly used by cable operators, telephone companies,
and internet providers worldwide to convey data, video, and voice
communications to customers.
 It has also been used extensively within homes.
 COAXIAL CABLE
• The coaxial cable is called ‘‘coax’’ and pronounced ‘‘co-ax’’).
• Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used.
 One kind, 50-ohm cable, is commonly used for digital transmission
from the start.
 The other kind, 75-ohm cable, is commonly used for analog
transmission and cable television.
 FIBER OPTICS
 Fiber optics are used for long-haul transmission in network backbones, highspeed LANs
and high-speed Internet access such as FttH (Fiber to the Home).
 An optical transmission system has three key components:
 the light source,
 the transmission medium, and
 the detector.
 Conventionally, a pulse of light indicates a 1 bit and the absence of light indicates a 0 bit.
 The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber of glass is a hair-thin fiber, sometimes
made of plastic but most often of glass .
 A typical glass optical fiber has a diameter of 125 micrometres (μm), or 0.125 mm (0.005
inch). This is actually the diameter of the cladding, or outer reflecting layer.
 The core, or inner transmitting cylinder, may have a diameter as small as 10 μm.
 FIBER OPTICS

 Currently available single-mode fibers can transmit data at 100

Gbps for 100 km without amplification.
 In multimode fibers, the core is typically 50 microns in diameter,
about the thickness of a human hair.
 RJ45 CONNECTOR
 RJ45 is available in two standards i.e. T568A and T568B each
of these works as pin IN and pin Out for Ethernet cable to
perform data transfer. the only difference between these two
cables is the wiring of green and orange pairs.
 T568A is a commonly used pinout standard for ethernet cables.
The highlight of this standard is that it is backward compatible
with one-pair as well as two-pair USOC (Universal service
ordering code).
Pin Wire Color Signal Description

1 white/Green TX1+ Transmit +

2 Green TX1- Transmit –

3 White/Orange RX+ Receive +

Bi-Directional
4 Blue TX2+
Transmit +

Bi-Directional
5 White/Blue TX2-
Transmit –

6 Orange RX- Receive –

Bi-Directional
7 White/Brown TX3+
Transmit +

Bi-Directional
8 Brown TX3-
Transmit –
 RJ45 cable Pin Out color code T568B:
 This standard gives better protection from noise, It also
isolates the signal more effectively as compared to
T568A. It is only backward compatible with a one-pair
USOC wiring scheme.
 Descriptio
Pin Wire Color Signal
n
1 White/Orange TX1+ Transmit +

2 Orange TX1- Transmit –

3 White/Green RX+ Receive +

Bi-Directional
4 Blue TX2+
Transmit +

Bi-Directional
5 White/Blue TX2-
Transmit –

6 Green RX- Receive –

Bi-Directional
7 White/Brown TX3+
Transmit +

Bi-Directional
8 Brown TX3-
Transmit –