Microprocessor Systems Design

Lecture 1
Course Contents
 Introduction to Microprocessors
 Assembly Language Programming
 Data Transfers Instruction
 Addressing Modes
 Arithmetic Instructions
 Procedures and Stack Operations
 Conditional Processing
 Integer Arithmetic
 Memory Management
 Linear Addresses
 Translating Logical Addresses to Linear Addresses
 Paging
 Descriptor Tables
 Segment Descriptor Details
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Course Contents
 External interfacing
 Interrupts
 An overview of advanced Architecture
(CISC/RISC/DSP) microprocessors.
 A survey on Advanced Architecture
Microprocessors
 Comparison of CISC/RISC/DSP design
philosophies
 Bus timing analysis and design considerations
for high-performance systems
 Open Architecture Buses
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References
 Kip R. Irvine, “Assembly Language for x86
Processors”

 Barry B. Brey, “The Intel Microprocessors:

Architecture Programming, and Interfacing”,
2008, Prentice Hall.

4 Microprocessors I: Lecture 1 02/28/2025

Lecture Contents
 Introduction to Microprocessors
 Microprocessor vs Microcomputer
 An Elementary Microprocessor
 Example for Stored Program

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Introduction
 A microprocessor is a very complex electronic
circuit.

 It consists of thousands of microscopic

transistors squeezed onto a tiny chip of
silicon.

 The chip is placed in a package containing

anywhere from 40 to 64 leads.
Microprocessor vs Microcomputer
 The microprocessor unit, or MPU, is a
complex logic element that performs
arithmetic, logic, and control operations.
 The trend is to package it as a single
integrated circuit.

 A microcomputer contains a microprocessor,

but it also contains other circuits such as
memory devices to store information,
interface adapters to connect it with the
outside world, and a clock to act as a master
timer for the system. (See the microcomputer
diagram)
Microcomputer Diagram
Stored Program Concept
 A microcomputer is capable of performing
many different operations such as add and
subtract, logical operations, read from an
input device and transmit to an output
device.

 These operations are called instructions. A

few typical instructions such as add, sub and
mov.

 A group of instructions that allows the

computer to perform a specific job is called a
stored program.
Computer Word
An Elementary Microcomputer
 A block diagram of a basic microcomputer is
shown in the figure, which shows the
microprocessor, the memory, and the I/O
circuitry.
The Micro-
processor
Unit [MPU]
The Microprocessor Unit [MPU]
 The operation that the ALU performs
(add/sub/compare) is determined by signals
on the various control lines (marked C on the
block diagram).
 ALU receives two 8-bit numbers from the
accumulator and the data register. (Called
operand)
The Microprocessor Unit [MPU]
 The two inputs are called Operands.
 The two operands may be added,
subtracted, or compared, and the result of the
operation is stored back in the accumulator.
 For example, assume that two numbers [7 and
9] are to be added. Before the numbers can
be added, one operand (9) is placed in the
accumulator; the other (7) is placed in the
data register.
 The proper control line is then activated to
implement the add operation. The ALU adds
the two numbers together, producing their
sum (16) at the output.
The Microprocessor Unit [MPU]
 As shown in Figure B, the sum is stored in the
accumulator, replacing the operand that was
originally stored there.
The accumulator
 The accumulator is the most useful register
in the microprocessor.

 During arithmetic and logic operations it

performs a dual function.

 Before the operation, it holds one of the

operands.

 After the operation, it holds the resulting

sum, difference, or logical answer.
Data Register and Address Register
 The data register is a temporary storage
location for data going to or coming from the
data bus.

 The address register is another temporary

storage location. It holds the address of the
memory location or I/O device that is used in
the operation presently being performed.
Program Counter and Instruction
Decoder
 The program counter controls the sequence
in which the instructions in a program are
performed. At any given instant, the count
indicates the location in memory from which
the next byte of information is to be taken.

 The instruction decoder decodes the

instruction after an instruction is pulled from
memory and placed in the data register. The
decoder examines the 8-bit code and
decides which operation is to be performed
(256 instructions).
Controller Sequencer
 The controller-sequencer produces a variety
of control signals to carry out the
instruction.

 Since each instruction is different, a different

combination of control signals is produced for
each instruction.

 This circuit determines the sequence of

events (phases) necessary to complete the
operation described by the instruction.
Memory
 A simplified diagram of the 256-word, 8-bit
read/write memory in our hypothetical
microcomputer is shown in the figure.
Memory
 The memory consists of 256 locations, each of
which can store an 8-bit word, the size
memory (256x8).
 The address bus will carry an 8-bit, which
can specify 256 locations, from the MPU to the
memory address decoder.
 Each location is assigned a unique number
called its address.
 The first location is given the address 0 and
the last location is given the address 255,
which is 1111 1111 in binary and FF in
hexadecimal.
 A specific location is selected by placing its 8-
Memory
 The address decoder decodes the 8-bit
number and selects the proper memory
location.
 The memory also receives a control signal
from the MPU.
 A READ signal indicates that the selected
location is to be read out.
Memory
 The MPU can also initiate a WRITE operation.
Fetch-Execute Sequence
 The instructions initially stored in memory.
 Instructions must be fetched, one at a time,
from memory by the MPU.
 The instruction is then executed by the
MPU.
 The operation of the microcomputer can be
broken down into two phases.
A Sample Program
 The program looks like this:
LDA 7
ADD 10
HLT
The simple program as a stored program
Fetch Phase
 First the
contents of
the Program
Counter (PC)
are
transferred to
the Address
Register
Fetch Phase
 Once the address
is safely in the
Address
Register, the
program counter
(PC) is incremented
by one.

 That is, its contents

change from
00000000 to
00000001
Fetch Phase
 Next, the
contents of
the
Address
Register
[0000
0000] are
placed on
the Address
Bus
Fetch Phase
 The contents of
the selected
memory location
are placed on the
Data Bus and
transferred to the
Data Register in
the MPU.
 After this
operation, the
Opcode for the
LDA instruction
will be in the data
register.
Fetch Phase
 The opcode is
transferred to the
Instruction Decoder.
 This circuit recognizes
that the opcode is that
of an LDA instruction.
 It informs the Controller-
Sequencer of this fact
and the Sequencer
produces the
necessary control
pulses to carry out the
instruction.
 The fetch phase in
Hypothetical MP has
been completed.
Execute Phase
 The MPU now knows
that this is an LDA
instruction.
 It must carry out this
instruction by reading
out the next byte of
memory and placing it
in the Accumulator
Register.

 Then, the first step is to

transfer the address of
the next byte from the
Program Counter to the
Address Register.
Execute Phase
 Two operations are
shown in Figure.
 First, the Program
Counter is
incremented to
00000010 in
expectation of the
next fetch phase.
 Second, the
contents of the
Address Register
[00000001] are
placed on the
 Execute Phase
 The address is decoded
and the contents of
memory location
00000001 (Operand) are
loaded into the Data
Register (value of 7)
 The number is transferred
to the accumulator.
 Thus, the Execute phase
of the first instruction
ends with the number 7 in
the accumulator register.