Module Title: Calibrating and Configuring Instrumentation

and Control Devices

TTLM Code: EIS IEC3 M071023
Nominal duration: 60Hour

This module covers the units:

• Plan and prepare for configuration
•Calibrate instrumentation and control devices
•Inspect, test and calibrate instruments and control devices
 UNIT 1:Instrumentation and control device configuration

1.Configuration Work plan

1.Configure instrumentation and control devices
 System configuration is the process of setting up your hardware devices and
assigning resources to them so that they work together without problems.
The way a system is set up, or the assortment of components that make up the
system.
•A properly-configured system will allow you to avoid nasty resource
conflict problems, and make it easier for you to upgrade your system with new
equipment in the future.
•An improperly-configured system will lead to strange errors and problems,
and make upgrading a night mare.
•Types of Configurations
 Configuration can refer to either hardware or software, or the combination of both.
For instance, a typical configuration for a PC consists of 32MB (megabytes)
main memory, a floppy drive, a hard disk, a modem, a CD-ROM drive, a VGA
monitor, and the Windows operating system.

•Hardware/DeviceConfiguration
•Actuator bench-set
Valve actuators provide force to move control valve trim. For precise positioning of a
control valve, there must be a calibrated relationship between applied force and valve
position.
Most pneumatic actuators exploit Hooke’s Law to translate applied air pressure to valve
stem position.
F=kx
Where,
F=Force applied to spring in Newton’s (metric) or pounds (English)
k=Constant of elasticity, or spring constant in Newton’s per meter (metric) or pounds per
foot (English)
x=Displacement of spring in meters (metric) or feet (English)
 Hooke’s Law is a linear function, which means that spring motion will be linearly
related to applied force from the actuator element (piston or diaphragm). Since the
working area of a piston or diaphragm is constant, the relationship between actuating
fluid pressure and force will be a simple proportion (F=PA). By algebraic substitution,
we may alter Hooke’s Law to include pressure and area:
F= k x PA= k x
Solving for spring compression as a function of pressure, area, and spring constant:
x=PA/k

There are really only two mechanical adjustments that need to be made when
coupling a pneumatic diaphragm actuator to a sliding – stem valve: the stem
connector and the spring adjuster.
•The stem connector mechanically joins the sliding stems of both actuator and
valve body so they move together as one stem.
•This connector must be adjusted so neither the actuator nor the valve trim
prevents full travel of the valve trim:
•Once the stem length has been properly set by adjusting the stem connector, the
spring adjuster must be set for the proper bench set pressure. This is the pneumatic
signal pressure required to lift the plug of the seat. For an air-to-open control valve
with a 3 to15PSI signal range, the bench set pressure would be 3PSI.
Bench set is a very important parameter for a control valve because it establishes
the seating pressure of the plug when the valve is fully closed.
Consult the manufacturer’s instructions when adjusting the bench set pressure for
any sliding-stem control valve.
These instructions will typically guide you through both the stem connector and
the spring adjuster procedures, to ensure both parameters are correctly set.

•Split-ranging
There are many process control applications in industry where it is desirable to have
multiple control valves respond to the output of a common controller.
Control valves configured to follow the command of the same controller are said to be
split-ranged, or sequenced.
Split-ranged control valves may take different forms of sequencing.
A few different modes of control valve sequencing are commonly seen in industry:
complementary, exclusive, and progressive.
Complementary valve sequencing
The first is a mode where two valves serve to proportion a mixture of two fluid streams,
such as this example where base and pigment liquids are mixed together to form colored
paint:
Both base and pigment valves operate from the same 3to15PSI pneumatic signal output
by the I/P transducer (AY), but one of the valves is Air-To-Open while the other is Air-To-
Close.
 Figure 1. 5Complementary valve sequence
•Exclusive valve sequencing
Other applications for split-ranged control valves call for a form of valve
sequencing where both valves are fully closed at a 50% controller output signal,
with one valve opening fully as the controller output drives toward 100% and the
other valve opening fully as the controller output goes to 0%.
 The nature of this valve sequencing is to have an “either-or” throttled path for
process fluid.
That is, either process fluid flows through one valve or through the other, but never
through both at the same time.
A practical example of this form of split-ranging is in reagent feed to a pH
neutralization process, where the PH value of process liquid is brought closer to
neutral by the addition of either acid or caustic:
 Figure 1. 7 Exclusive valve sequencing
•Progressive valve sequencing
A third form of control valve sequencing is used to expand the operating range of
flow control for some fluid beyond that which a single control valve could muster.
Once again pH control provides a suitable example to illustrate an application of this
form of sequencing.
 1.Instrumentation and control devices and their standard
 Instrumentation and control devices are used to measure and control process
variables in various industries.
These variables include pressure, temperature, humidity, flow, pH, force,
and speed.
The field of instrumentation and control engineering is interdisciplinary and
requires knowledge of chemistry, mechanics, electricity and magnetism,
electronics, microcontrollers and microprocessors, software languages,
process control, pneumatics and hydraulics principles, and communications.
The primary objective of instrumentation is to measure the process variables accurately.
Control devices are used to maintain the process variables at a desired set point.
Instruments are devices that measure or manipulate variables such as flow,
temperature, level, or pressure.
They can be classified into different types based on various criteria, such as
location (in-field or panel), power source (pneumatic or electronic), output signal
(analog or digital), or measurement parameter (pressure, temperature, flow, level,
etc.) .
Control devices are mechanical, electro-mechanical, or electronic devices that
use input signals to change conditions or values in processes or oversee access
to buildings, gated areas, etc. Controllers generally receive voltage inputs from
sources, analyze the inputs, and then oversee condition changes via signal
outputs.
 Instrumentation and control engineering (ICE) is a branch of engineering that studies the
measurement and control of process variables using instruments and software tools. ICE
involves the design and implementation of systems that incorporate sensors, transmitters,
controllers, actuators, and displays

1.Types of instrumentation and control device to be configured

 Configuration is the process of arranging parts or elements in a particular form,
figure, or combination.
In the context of Instrumentation and Control (I&C) Design, configuration
refers to the planning, preparation, and arrangement of instrumentation and
control devices in line with job requirements.

Control System Philosophy

1.Package Control System Philosophy
2.Power Supply & Instrument Air Supply Philosophy
3.Hazardous Area Classification Requirements
4.Basic Requirements Related to Field Instruments and Cables
5.Basic Requirements Related to Installation & Related Items
6.Spare Philosophy
Access Control Systems
Access Control Systems are electronic or electro-mechanical devices or systems
composed of remote stations and centralized controlling stations which are used for
security monitoring and to manage the movement of personnel, vehicles, materials, etc.
through entrances and exits.
Flow Controllers
Flow Controllers are mechanical or electro-mechanical devices composed of measuring sensors
or controlling elements that are used to ensure media flow in manufacturing processes.
Level Controllers
Level Controllers are mechanical or electro-mechanical devices used for controlling the levels
of tanks, vats, etc. usually by means of pumps, and they are sometimes called pump
controllers.
Pressure Controllers
Pressure Controllers are electro-mechanical devices used for controlling process/system
pressure in various industrial processes.
Programmable Logic Controllers
Programmable Logic Controllers are electronic devices used for controlling automatic
machinery, processes, etc.
Data Acquisition System
DAS involves the process of sampling real world physical conditions and conversion of the
resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer.
Universal Process/Temperature Controllers
Universal Process/Temperature Controllers are electronic devices used to control various
process parameters, including temperature.
Sensors/Transmitters/Transducers
• Some of the main differences between the terms pressure sensor, transducer, and transmitter.
The terms pressure sensor, pressure transducer and pressure transmitter are some what
interchangeable in the industrial worl d.
Pressuresensor
A pressure sensor simply monitors this pressure and can display it in one of the several units
known around the world. This is commonly the “Pascal”, “Bar”, and “PSI” (Pounds per Square
Inch) in the United States.
Pressure transducer
High level voltage or frequency output signal including 0.5 to 4.5 V ratio metric(output signal is
proportional to the supply),1-5Vand1-6 kHz.
Pressure transmitter
Current output signal, i.e. 4-20mA (4 to 20mA), the current, rather than the voltage, is
measured on the device, rather than the voltage.
Analogue Indicator
An indicator on which the value of the physical quantity measured is indicated by an index
and graduated scale, one of which is fixed and the position of the other is a continuous
function of the magnitude of the physical quantity being measured.

Figure 1. 16Analogue indicator

•Digital Indicator
An indicator on which the value of the physical quantity measured is represented by a
series of aligned digits which change abruptly such that no indication can be obtained
between digits; a digital indicator does not have graduation lines.
Control valves
Control valves are industrial valves specifically designed to control liquid media and
gases transmitted through a pipeline.
The operation principle of control valves is based on the need for a permanent change
of flow path by way of changing the size of the orifice of the valve.
Control valves can be operated manually, by means of a pneumatic single-piston
actuator, electrically, by a solenoid or a diaphragm actuator.
The main structural components of a control valve are
 Body,
 Trim and
 Actuator.
 The trim controls fluid flow
Actuators
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and
controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve.
 In simple terms, it is a "mover".
An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy
 Figure 1. 19Electric valve actuator controlling ½ needle valves

Recorders
Recording precipitation automatically has the advantage that it can provide better time
resolution than manual measurements, and it is possible to reduce the evaporation and
wetting losses. Three types of automatic precipitation recorders are in general use, namely
•The weighing recording type,
• The tilting or tipping-bucket type and
•The float types.
Only the weighing type is satisfactory for measuring all kinds of precipitation, the use of the
other two types being for the most part limited to the measurement of rainfall.
Annunciator associated with the installed devices
In industrial process control, an annunciator panel is a system to alert operators of alarm
conditions in the plant
Process switches
Another type of instrument commonly seen in measurement and control
systems is the process switches. The purpose of a switch is to turn on and o ff a
device like heaters, motors, valves etc… with varying process conditions

1.ConInstrumentation and control devices Configuration

 Configuration refers to the arrangement of elements in a system to
achieve a specific purpose. It can be divided into two types:
hardware configuration and software configuration.
• Hardware configuration refers to the physical arrangement of hardware
components in a system. It includes the selection of hardware
components, their compatibility, and their placement in the system.
 Software configuration refers to the arrangement of software
components in a system. It includes the selection of software components,
their compatibility, and their placement in the system.
 Calibration is the comparison of measurement results provided by a device
under test with those of a calibration standard of established accuracy in
measurement technology and metrology.
The calibration is just a comparison of measurement between the test
equipment to the standard equipment.
Calibration can be done on a variety of instruments in a variety of industries.
Let’s have a look at some of the most common calibration procedures:
1. Electrical Calibration: Electrical calibration is the process of ensuring that any
instrument that measures or tests electrical properties such as voltage, current,
resistance, inductance, capacitance, time, and frequency is operating properly.
2.Mechanical Calibration: Mechanical instruments are prone to drift as a result of
repeated use, mechanical stress, and exposure to fluctuating air conditions etc., ,
 and because of such condition the mechanical calibration is the much-needed
remedy to overcome the error induced in the equipment’s. Mass, volume, density,
force, torque, dimension, angle, flatness, and vibration .
3. Flow Calibration: A flow meter (also known as a flow sensor) is a device that
measures the linear or non-linear, mass or volumetric flow rate of a liquid or gas
1.Material, Tools, equipment and testing devices
 1.Material, Tools, equipment and testing devices
1.Equipment/testing devices
•Signal sources & generators
GS610 - Source measure unit The GS610 is a high accuracy, high speed
programmable voltage and current source that incorporate both generation and
measurement functions as well as USB storage and an Ethernet interface
•Calibration bench
Calibration Bench is the ultimate multifunction calibration station from Time
Electronics. Each calibration bench is custom-made to meet specific user
requirements . Calibration modules cover
 Electronic signal
 Temperature
 Loop and pressure applications.
 Power supplies
 DMMs
 Oscilloscopes and
 Signal generator
Air condition Equipped room
Air condition equipped room is a room which installed with device that help to
maintain internal temperature of the room to optimum level as required for specific/
desired purpose.
Requirements during calibration:
 Clean rooms
 Laboratories
 Data centers
 Server and computer rooms
 Telecommunications (wiring closets, switch gear rooms, cell sites)
 Printer/copier/CAD centers

•Air supply equipment or instrument

Compressor: Compressors used for instrument air delivery are available in various types
and sizes, from rotary screw (centrifugal) compressors to positive displacement
(reciprocating piston) types.
Power Source: A critical component of the instrument air control system is the power
source required to operate the compressor.
Dehydrators: Dehydrators, or air dryers, are an integral part of the instrument air
compressor system.
Water vapor present in atmospheric air condenses when the air is pressurized and
cooled, and can cause a number of problems to these systems, including corrosion of the
instrument parts and blockage of instrument air piping and controller orifices
Volume Tank: The volume tank holds enough air to allow the pneumatic control system
to have an uninterrupted supply of high-pressure air without having to run the air
compressor continuously.
Power supply equipment
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical
load.
The primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to
another.
As a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters.
 Generally depending on the voltage Types of Power Supplies:
DC power supply: A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its
load. Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or
from an AC source such as the power mains.
AC-to-DC supply: Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy
source. Such power supplies will sometimes employ a transformer to convert the input
voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage

Signal generator:
A signal generatoris an electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating
electronic signals in either the analog or the digital domain. It is generally used in
designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or electro acoustic
devices, though it often has artistic uses as well.
There are many different types of signal generators with different purposes and
applications and at varying levels of expense.
These types include function generators, RF and microwave signal generators, pitch
generators, arbitrary waveform generators, digital pattern generators and frequency
generators.
A function generator is a device which produces simple repetitive waveforms.
Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the
waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the instantaneous
signal voltage as a function of time.

Figure 1. 45Analog Oscilloscope

•Standard gauges
•The standard gaugeis a widely used railway track gauge.
Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are used this
gauge.
 1.Calibrate or adjust instrumentation and control devices
1.Basic introduction to calibration
There are as many definitions of calibration as there are methods.
According to ISA’s The Automation Systems and Instrumentation Dictionary, the
word calibration is defined as “a test during which known values of measurand are
applied to the transducer and corresponding output readings are recorded under
specified conditions.”
 Therefore, it makes sense that calibration is required for a new instrument. We
want to make sure the instrument is providing accurate indication or output signal
when it is installed.
The definition includes the capability to adjust the instrument to zero and to set
the desired span
 •Standard gauges
•The standard gaugeis a widely used railway track gauge.
Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are used this gauge.
Pressure gauges are manufactured in many configurations and sizes from 50mm
up to 300 mm dial size in ranges of 2.5 kPa up to 100,000kPa
 Regarding application several types of standard gauges are there.
General Purpose Pressure Gauges: - The ASG Series of General
Purpose pressure gauges guarantees long life & durability for indoor,
outdoor and harsh environmental conditions.

Low Pressure Gauges: - Low pressure gauges operated by a capsule system and
only suitable for use on air and some gases. Pressure ranges from -2.5-0 kPa up to
0-60 kpa pressure or vacuum.
Test Gauge: - Precision test gauges manufactured to the highest standard in quality.
Used for the testing of industrial gauges or equipment of the same standard. Safety
Pattern Pressure Gauges: - These gauges are generally used within the gas industry
are designed with operator safety in mind in case of a bourdon tube rupture and
that no projectiles will blow out from the front of the gauge
 UNIT 2. Calibrate Instrumentation and Control Devices

1.Devices normal functions

Introduction
Checking is commonly used to verify grounding and bonding connections in
electrical systems.
Checking normal functions of devices
PV systems should be thoroughly tested at the time of calibrating and periodically
over their lifetime to ensure proper performance and safe operation.
 The following summarizes common types of testing conducted on PV systems
what information it provides:
•Continuity and resistance testing verifies the integrity of grounding and
bonding systems, conductors, connections and other terminations.
•Polarity testing verifies the correct polarity for PV dc circuits, and proper
terminations for dc utilization equipment
•Voltage and current testing verify that PV array and system operating
parameters are within specifications.
• Insulation resistance testing verifies the integrity of wiring and equipment,
and used to detect degradation and faults to wiring insulation.
Performance testing verifies the system power and energy output areconsistent with
expectations.
 1.Condition instrumentation and control devices
2.Conditioning instrumentation and control devices is a process of adjusting,
calibrating, or modifying the devices to ensure their accuracy, reliability, and
performance. Conditioning can involve various types of control devices and
controllers, such as:
•Access control systems: These are devices or systems that use identification methods to
manage the movement of personnel, vehicles, materials, etc. through entrances and
exits. They can also be used for security monitoring and tracking purposes.
•Flow controllers: These are devices that measure and regulate the flow of media in
manufacturing processes. They can use mechanical valves or electronic sensors to
control the flow rate, pressure, temperature, etc. of gases or liquids.
Level controllers: These are devices that monitor and control the levels of
tanks, vats, etc. by means of pumps or valves. They can use various types of
sensors, such as conductive, capacitance, optical, or ultrasonic, to detect the level of
products in containers.
Electrical calibration: This is a type of calibration that tests and adjusts the accuracy of
instruments that measure electrical parameters, such as voltage, current, resistance,
frequency, etc.
Figure 2. 2A block diagram of a typical instrumentation system with several different
output devices

1.Calibrate or adjust instrumentation and control devices

1.Basic introduction to calibration
There are as many definitions of calibration as there are methods. According to ISA’s
The Automation Systems and Instrumentation Dictionary, the word calibration is
defined as “a test during which known values of measurand are applied to the
transducer and corresponding output readings are recorded under specified
conditions.” Therefore, it makes sense that calibration is required for a new
instrument. We want to make sure the instrument is providing accurate indication
or output signal when it is installed.
The definition includes the capability to adjust the instrument to zero and to set
the desired span.
Purpose of Calibration:
•The calibration of any measuring system is very important to get meaningful results.
•In the case where the sensing system and measuring system are different, then it is
imperative to calibrate the system as an integrated whole in order to take into account the
error producing properties of each component.
•Calibration is usually carried out by making adjustments such that the readout device
produces zero output for zero-measured input, and similarly, it should display an output
equivalent to the known measured input near the full-scale input value.
•It is important that any measuring system calibration should be performed under
environmental conditions that are as close as possible to those conditions under which
actual measurements are to be made.
•It is also important that the reference measured input should be known to an as much
greater degree of accuracy – usually, the calibration standard for the system should be at
least one order of magnitude more accurate than the desired measurement system
accuracy.
Typically, calibration of an instrument is checked at several points throughout the
calibration range of the instrument.
The calibration range is defined as “the region between the limits within which a
quantity is measured, received or transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper
range values.” The limits are defined by the zero and span values.
Calibration and ranging are two tasks associated with establishing an accurate
correspondence between any instrument’s input signal and its output signal.
To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the
output accurately corresponds to its input throughout a specified range.
To range an instrument means to set the lower and upper range values so it responds
with the desired sensitivity to changes in input.
The zero value is the lower end of the range.
Span is defined as the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range
values.The calibration range may differ from the instrument range, which refers to the
capability of the instrument.
Characteristics of Calibration
Every calibration should be performed to a specified tolerance.
The terms tolerance and accuracy are often used incorrectly. In ISA’s The Automation,
Systems, and Instrumentation Dictionary, the definitions for each are as follows:
Accuracy: The ratio of the error to the full-scale output or the ratio of the error to the
output, expressed in percent span or percent reading, respectively.
Tolerance: Permissible deviation from a specified value; may be expressed in
measurement units, percent of span, or percent of reading.
Calibration tolerances should not be assigned based on the manufacturer’s specification only.
Calibration tolerances should be determined from a combination of factors. These
factors include:
Requirements of the process
Capability of available test equipment
Consistency with similar instruments at your facility
Manufacturer’s specified tolerance
 1.Typical instrument error and calibration error
The instrument error can occur due to a variety of factors: drift, environment,
electrical supply, addition of components to the output loop, process changes, etc.
Since a calibration is performed by comparing or applying a known signal to the
instrument under test, errors are detected by performing a calibration.
Typical errors that occur include:
a.Instrument errors
Any given instrument is prone to errors either due to aging or due to manufacturing
tolerances.Here are some of the common terms used when describing the
performance of an instrument.
Range The range of an instrument is usually regarded as the difference between
the maximum and minimum reading
Accuracy
The accuracy of an instrument is often stated as a % of the range or full-scale
deflection.
Repeatability
If an accurate signal is applied and removed repeatedly to the system and it is
found that the indicated reading is different each time, the instrument has poor
repeatability.
Stability
Instability is most likely to occur in instruments involving electronic processing with
a high degree of amplification.
•Reliability
Most forms of equipment have a predicted life span. The more reliable it is, the
less chance it has of going wrong during its expected life span.
Drift
This occurs when the input to the system is constant but the output tends to change
slowly.
1.Calibration of instrument and control device procedures
The purpose of this section to describe procedures for efficiently calibrating different
types of instruments. Calibration of measurement equipment can be done on a variety
of instruments in a variety of industries.
1.Typical calibration
Electrical Calibration Electrical calibration is the process of ensuring that any
instrument that measures or tests electrical properties such as voltage, current,
resistance, inductance, capacitance, time, and frequency is operating properly
The following instruments are frequently submitted for electrical calibration:

Data loggers
Electric meters
Multi-meters
Oscilloscopes
Frequency counters
Insulation Testers
Loop testers etc
Mechanical Calibration: Mechanical instruments are prone to drift as a result of
repeated use, mechanical stress, and exposure to fluctuating air conditions etc.,
The following are some of the most commonly tested mechanical calibration
instruments:
Accelerometers
Scales/Balances
Force Gauges & Load Cells
Micrometers, Vernier, and height gauges
Screwdrivers & Torque Wrenches
Sets of Weight and Mass
Flow Calibration: A flow meter (also known as a flow sensor) is a device that
measures the linear or non-linear, mass or volumetric flow rate of a liquid or gas.
The four most common types of flow meters that need calibration are:
Thermal Mass Flowmeters
Laminar flowmeters
Gas and Air Rotameters
Turbine meters.
Pressure calibration is a critical operation performed in a variety of industries where
measurement equipment is required to monitor process performance and safety,
with gas and hydraulic pressure being the most common measurements
The following are some examples of pressure devices that are
calibrated on a regular basis:
•Digital Pressure Gauges
•Digital Indicators
•Transducers
•Transmitters
•Analogue Pressure Gauges
•Barometers
Test Gauges .
Temperature calibration is undertaken and carried out in a controlled
environment in all processes where temperature readings play an important role
for the equipment’s to run without interruption.
The following are some examples of equipment that need temperature
calibration on a regular basis:
Data Acquisition Systems
Thermometers/Thermocouples
Dial Thermometers
Chambers/Furnaces
Infrared Meters
PRTs and Thermistors
Thermal Cameras
 1.Calibration Procedures in Linear, Non-Linear and Discrete
Instruments
Calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output accurately
corresponds to its input throughout a specified range.
Procedures for efficiently calibrating different types of instruments
Linear instruments
The simplest calibration procedure for an analog, linear instrument is the so-called zero-and-
span method. The method is as follows:
Apply the lower-range value stimulus to the instrument, wait for it to stabilize
Move the “zero” adjustment until the instrument registers accurately at this point
Apply the upper-range value stimulus to the instrument, wait for it to stabilize
Move the “span” adjustment until the instrument registers accurately at this point
Repeat steps 1 through 4 as necessary to achieve good accuracy at both ends of the range.
Nonlinear instruments
The calibration of inherently nonlinear instruments is much more challenging than for linear
instruments. No longer are two adjustments (zero and span) sufficient, because more than
two points are necessary to define a curve.
Examples of nonlinear instruments include expanded-scale electrical meters, square root
characterizers, and position-characterized control valves.
Discrete instruments
The word “discrete” means individual or distinct. In engineering, a “discrete” variable or
measurement refers to a true-or-false condition. Thus, a discrete sensor is one that is only
able to indicate whether the measured variable is above or below a specified setpoint.
 a.Calibration of instrument with their procedure
Owing to the physical limitations of measuring devices and the system under study, every
practical measurement will always have some errors. Several types of errors occur in a
measurement system. These include;
Static Errors:
They are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its
behavior.
Dynamic Errors:
They are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in
measured variable. A practical example can be seen in a situation where the room
thermometer does not show the correct temperature until several minutes after the
temperature has reached a steady value.
Random Errors:
These may be due to causes which cannot be readily established; could also be caused by
random variations in the system under study.
Basic Steps in Instrument Calibration
There are three basic steps involved in the calibration of an instrument. These include:
To collect measured values (Output values) of standard values (input values) provided by
a standard input reference.
To complete verification/calibration tables for upscale and down scale values (5 or 3
points)
To calculate the error on the output signal and to compare the result with the expected
accuracy.
Five Point Calibration Basics
In a five point calibration for an instrument, the output is measured at 0%, 25%, 50%,
75% & 100% of the calibration range of the instrument. In the five-point calibration
process, output readings are taken for upscale and down scale values of the calibration
range to determine the repeatability and hysteresis of the instrument. In a five-point
calibration, LRV = 0% Input; URV = 100%