Computer Architecture

Presentation
 • The microprocessor, often referred to as the central
The processing unit (CPU), is the brain of the computer.
It's a programmable device that performs arithmetic
Microprocessor and logical operations using data stored in small, fast
memory areas called registers. Here, we will delve
into the common components of a microprocessor:
Micro-Processor Components
Flow Chart

(The following slide diagram was created using SmartDraw)

 • Control Unit (CU): The CU manages and coordinates all the
computer's operations. It interprets instructions from memory and
transforms them into a series of signals to activate other parts of
the computer, thus controlling the computer's operation. (Brain &
Pollette, 2000; Boxofnotes, 2023; Landers, no date)
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and
Components of logical operations. It contains a group of binary calculators that

Microprocessor perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division, and logical operations like AND, OR,
NOT, and XOR operations. (Brain & Pollette, 2000; Boxofnotes,
2023; Landers, no date)
• Registers: These are small storage areas in the CPU that hold data
that are currently being processed. For instance, an Accumulator
register stores the results of operations, and a Program Counter
register holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.
(Brain & Pollette, 2000; Boxofnotes, 2023)
 • Cache Memory: This is a small amount of high-speed volatile memory
available to the CPU, used to temporarily store data that is frequently
accessed or might be accessed next. Cache memory can significantly
speed up the data retrieval process. (Landers, no date)
• Memory Address Register (MAR) and Memory Data Register (MDR):

More MAR holds the address in memory of the instruction at hand, while
MDR holds the actual instruction or data. (Brain & Pollette, 2000)

Components of • Instruction Decoder: This component decodes instructions fetched into

control signals and subsequential operations. (Bates, 2011)
Microprocessor • Bus Interface Unit (BIU): This unit handles all data and addresses on
the buses from and to the CPU. It allows the microprocessor to
communicate with peripherals and devices attached to the system.
(Brain & Pollette, 2000; Landers, no date)
• Clock Circuit: The clock circuit generates a sequence of electrical
pulses at a constant rate, used to time and synchronize all operations
within the computer. (Brain & Pollette, 2000; BBC, 2023)
 Optimizing System
Performance:
The Role of Processor Components in Accelerating Operating System
Functions

(The following slide diagram was created using Canva)

Operating system
 An operating system (OS) is the program that controls all other
application programs in a computer after being installed into
the system first by a boot program. (Bigelow, n.d.)

 Examples of operating systems that are frequently used

nowadays include Windows, Mac, Android, etc. (BYJUS, n.d.)

 software program that serves as a bridge between a computer's

users and other software applications or users and the hardware
of the computer.

 Users can engage with the computer and efficiently manage its
resources thanks to the vital services and features it offers.
  An operating system's (OS) primary functions
include managing the computer’s hardware
The main resources and providing a simple and effective
platform for the execution of software programs.
purpose of (Shiksha.com, 2020)

the operating  There are three main purposes of an Operating

system System.

1. To facilitate user interaction with computers.

2. To manage how application software is executed.
3. For controlling system resources.
 SINGLE-TASKING MULTI-TASKING MULTI-USER
Types of OPERATING
SYSTEM
OPERATING
SYSTEM
OPERATING
SYSTEM

operating
systems

REAL-TIME DISTRIBUTED MOBILE

OPERATING OPERATING OPERATING
SYSTEM (RTOS) SYSTEM SYSTEM
 Single-Tasking Operating System  Multi-Tasking Operating System

 A single-user single-tasking operating  This enables a user to handle multiple

system is one that enables a single user to computer tasks simultaneously, such as
carry out just one task at once. An action can running an application software. The
only be taken one at a time, such as printing operating system can monitor where you are
a document or downloading photographs. in each of these jobs and switch between
 Ex - Palm OS and MS-DOS. them without losing data. (WhatIs.com, n.d.)

 Advantages -  Advantages -

 Simplicity  Task Management

 Resource Efficiency  Resource Sharing

 Stability  Convenience
 Multi-User Operating System  Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)

 A user can perform several computer tasks at  An operating system (OS) that ensures real-
once due to the multitasking functionality of time applications have a given capability by
an operating system. The operating system a certain deadline is known as a real-time
can keep track of how you're doing on operating system (RTOS).
different jobs and switch among them  Requirements for RTOS processing speed are
without losing any data. (Bharti, 2022) expressed in milliseconds. (Data Center, n.d.)
 Advantages -  Advantages -
 User Management  Deterministic Response
 Resource Sharing  Task Prioritization
 Centralized Administration
• Reliable Performance
 Distributed Operating System  Mobile Operating System

 A distributed system is made up of numerous  A mobile operating system (OS) is a piece of

independent parts that are spread across software that allows computers, tablets, and
various devices and communicate with one other devices to run software and programs.
another to accomplish shared objectives. An interface between the device's hardware
(SearchMobileComputing, n.d.) components and software functions is
 Advantages - provided by OS. (SearchMobileComputing,
n.d.)
 Scalability
 Advantages –
 Fault Tolerance
 Mobility
 Resource Sharing
 App Ecosystem
 Power Efficiency
(www.includehelp.com, n.d.)
I/O Controller

• I/O controllers are a series of microchips that help in the communication

of the data between the central processing unit and the motherboard. The
main purpose of the I/O interfaces is to transmit and receive data. (Trick,
what is I/O (input/output)? 2022)
•Types of I/O control methods
 Programmed I/O - The programmed I/O method controls the transfer of
data between connected devices and the computer.

 interrupt-based I/O - The interrupt-based I/O method controls the data

transfer activity to and from the connected device

 Direct Memory Access (DMA) I/O

 Channel O/I
Kernel operating system

• Kernal is a computer
program at the core of a
computer’s operating
system and generally has
complete control over
everything in the system
(Kernel (operating system)
2023)
 Functions of kernel
 Device Management
 Memory Management
 Resource Management
Kernel  Accessing Computer Resources
operating Types of Kernels
 Microkernels
system  Monolithic kernel
 Hybrid kernel
 Nano kernels
 Exokernel (Exokernel is still developing and is the
experimental approach for designing OS)
Interrupt handlers

• An OS usually includes code

called an interrupt handler to
prioritize interrupts and save them
in a queue if more than one is
waiting to be handled. It also
works as a program scheduler
which determines the next
program that to be controlled.
(Awati, 2022)
Two main
two types of  First-level interrupt handler (FLIH): A hard or fast
interrupt handler that handles maskable interrupts
interrupt and has jitter during process execution
 Second-level interrupt handler (SLIH): A slow and
handlers soft interrupt handler with less jitter than (FLIH)
 •What is memory management?
•Memory management is the process of controlling
and coordinating a computer’s memory. It ensures that
blocks of memory space are properly managed and
allocated so the operating system (OS), application,
and other running processes have the memory they
need to carry out their operations. (Team, Memory
Memory Management in operating system 2021)
Management •Function of memory management within an
operation system
 Track all memory locations free or allocated and if
allocated, to which process and how much
 To decide memory allocation policy
 To use various techniques and algorithms to
allocate or deallocate memory locations
 • Windows OS
Popular • MacOS
Operating • Linux OS

Systems •
•
Android OS
IOS
 •This is the most used operating system in the world and is
developed by Microsoft Corporation.
•Here are some of the main functions and characteristics
of Windows OS.
 File Explorer: Windows OS provides a hierarchical file
system that allows users to organize files and folders, and
to easily find and access them. It also includes a file search
function that enables users to quickly locate specific files.
Windows OS  Multitasking and Multithreading: The Windows operating
system allows users to run multiple applications at once,
each in its own window. It also supports multithreading,
which allows multiple tasks to run simultaneously within a
single application.
 Task Manager: Task Manager is used to manage all
currently running tasks. We can forcefully stop the
currently running tasks and also get information about the
tasks running in the background.
(Bhagwat, 2023)
 • This is an operating system developed by Apple
Inc. that is designed exclusively for Apple's
hardware, such as Mac computers.
 Smart folders in Finder: Smart folders aren't real
folders: they tag certain files with certain search
criteria, like labels in Gmail.
 Automate repetitive tasks: Automator is one of the
MacOS most useful utilities included in macOS. by this,
any repeated macOS task you do can be handled by
Automator
 Accessibility: macOS includes a number of
accessibility features, such as Voiceover, Zoom, and
Siri, to make it easier for users with disabilities to
use their computers.
(Nield, 2017)
 • This is a free and open-source operating system
that can be installed on a wide range of devices,
from personal computers to servers and
supercomputers.
 Multiuser Capacity: In Multiuser Capacity, users
can simultaneously share system resources such as
Linux OS RAM, hard disk, and application programs.
 Open Source: Linux is an open-source operating
system, which means that the source code is freely
available for anyone to view, modify and
redistribute.
(Saalim, 2023)
 • Android OS is a Linux-based mobile operating
system that primarily runs on smartphones and
tablets.
 Intents and Sharing: Android uses a system called
intents, which allows apps to communicate with each
other and share data seamlessly. This functionality
enables users to share content like text, images, and
links from one app to another effortlessly.
Android OS  Google Integration: Android OS is tightly integrated
with Google services like Gmail, Google Maps, and
Google Drive.
 Alternate Keyboards: Swift Key, Skype, and 8pen
apps can quickly change the keyboard style. In other
mobile phones, the OS does not allow the additional
keyboard.
(Anon., n.d.)
 • This is a unique operating system developed by
Apple Inc for its mobile devices such as iPhone
and iPad. iOS is known for its sleek user interface,
strong security features and smooth operation.
 Siri: iOS features Siri, Apple's voice-activated
personal assistant. Siri can answer questions, make
IOS recommendations, and perform tasks for users, such
as setting reminders or making phone calls.
 iCloud: iOS includes iCloud, Apple's cloud-based
storage and syncing service, which allows users to
store their data and content in the cloud and access
it from any device.
 • There are several features related to the operating
system that can contribute to the speed and
performance of a computer. Here are some of the
Features of most important ones:
Operating • Memory management:

Systems • File system management:

• Security:
• Virtual memory management:
 Memory management:  File system management:

• The operating system is responsible • The operating system is responsible

for managing the computer's for managing the computer's file
memory. By efficiently allocating system. By organizing and
memory, the operating system helps managing files efficiently, the
prevent memory leaks and improve operating system can improve the
the overall performance of the overall performance of the system.
computer.
(Rouse, 2020)
(Choudhary, n.d.)
 Security:  Virtual memory management:

• OS security includes various • The operating system can use

techniques and methods that ensure virtual memory to improve system
protection from threats and attacks. performance. By using the hard disk
OS security allows various as virtual memory, the operating
applications and programs to system can free up more physical
perform necessary tasks and stop memory to use for other processes.
unauthorized interference.
(Anon., 2023)
(Rouse, 2023)
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