REMEMBERING AND

FORGETTING
Expected learning
outcomes
By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

 Define the terms remembering, and

forgetting
 Examine theories of forgetting
 Discuss strategies that enhance

remembering / Minimise forgetting

Introduction
 We depend on memory in our everyday life.
 For example, a student has to remember: registration
number, the units registered in the semester, answers
to items in a test etc.
 Learning will make no sense if it is not retained in
memory.
 It is through the capacity of memory that we are able
to relate to different events, experiences, conditions,
people and objects.
 However, there are occasions when our memory fails
and we forget.
 Key inquiry questions: Why do we forget? How
can memory be enhanced?
Definition of terms

 Remembering -ability to recall or retrieve

information stored in memory.
 Retrieval - act of moving information from

the long term memory back to the working

memory.
 Forgetting - the failure to remember or the

loss of information already stored in one’s

long term memory.
Theories of Forgetting
 How does forgetting occur?
1. Decay theory / Disuse theory
 Once a memory trace is stored in the long term

memory, it must be routinely activated or put into use

to keep it in memory.
 Information that is not frequently remembered, the

memory trace weakens or fades away and decays.

 If the decay is not stopped by remembering the

information, it gets lost forever from the long term

memory.
 E.g. the withdrawal of reinforcement for sometime in

classical conditioning led to extinction of the learned

response.
Application of Decay theory

 The teacher should ensure that learners

rehearse information under conditions of
reinforcement to keep it in memory

 Rehearsal -the constant repetition and

review of learned material
 Lack of rehearsal lead to weakening and

loss of the Stimulus-Response connections

learned
Importance of rehearsal in learning

 Strengthens encoding
Rehearsal facilitates the transition of information from
STM to LTM. Information that is repeatedly reviewed is
encoded more deeply making it easier to retrieve.
 Enhances retrieval

Rehearsal improves the ability to retrieve information

when needed by reinforcing neural pathways.
 Prevents forgetting

Regular rehearsal counteracts memory decay and keeps

the material accessible.
 Promotes deeper understanding

When rehearsal is combined with elaboration

(connecting new material to existing knowledge), it
leads to more meaningful learning.
Types of Rehearsal

 Maintenance Rehearsal
◦ Involves simple repetition without adding meaning.
◦ Keeps information in short-term memory but is less
effective for long-term retention.
◦ Example: Repeating a grocery list until you write it
down.
 Elaborative Rehearsal
◦ Involves linking new information to existing
knowledge or adding meaning to it.
◦ Promotes deeper encoding and long-term retention.
◦ Example: Relating historical dates to personal
experiences or broader concepts.
To promote rehearsal, the teacher should:

 Use Active Recall Techniques such as frequent quizzes,

Question &Answer sessions, encourage self-testing.
 Train learners to use spaced practice rather than massed
practice
 Encourage elaborative rehearsal- Show learners how the
content they are learning is related to what was learned
earlier
 Use multimodal learning activities such as group discussions,
visual aids and diagrams, hand-on practical activities
 In cooperate technology – use of educational Apps,
interactive games and video lessons
 Promote collaborative learning
 Use mnemonic devices
 Make content meaningful
Reinforcement

 Remembering is best promoted if learning is

reinforced.
 Withdrawal of reinforcement causes

extinction, which is the disappearance of

the learned response.
 If a learner displays the desirable behavior

without being reinforced, forgetting occurs.

2. Interference theory
 Learners forget content that they learn because other

information interfere with it.

 Types of Interference
a. Proactive Interference - When older memories
disrupt the ability to recall newer memories.
Example: You struggle to remember your new phone number
because your old phone number keeps coming to mind.
b. Retroactive Interference - When newer memories
interfere with the retrieval of older memories.
Example: After learning a new language, such as
French, you may find it harder to recall vocabulary from
a previously learned language, like Spanish.
Cont..
What causes interference?

a) Stimulus similarity – learning material that

is similar

b) Learning material close together in time

c) Learning large volumes of information

(multiple lists)

d) Learning information in the same context

Application of interference theory

To promote remembering:
 Make new learning clear by bringing out the

similarities and differences between the old

and new information.
 A learning task must be practiced until it is

mastered and even over-learned.

 Partially learned tasks interfere more with

other partially learned tasks.

 Over learning means going beyond the

mastery of a task and ensuring that the

content is at the “finger tips” - content can
be recalled with ease
Cont…

3. Repression theory of Forgetting

 A type of forgetting proposed by Sigmund

Freud – Repression is also known as forced

forgetting
 Memories for events or desires that we find

threatening are pushed into the

unconscious mind.
 E.g. cases of childhood abuse many adults

do not wish to remember hence push the

memories to the unconscious mind
Application
Focus is to foster positive experiences and reduce anxiety during
learning:
 Use encouragement, praise, and constructive feedback during

learning.
 Reduce fear of failure by normalizing mistakes as part of the

learning process.
 Create a supportive and inclusive classroom culture

 Teach relaxation techniques like deep breathing or mindfulness

to learners.
 Encourage short breaks during study sessions to prevent

burnout
 Help learners reframe their mindset toward challenging topics

(e.g., "Math isn’t scary, it’s a puzzle to solve").

 Use spaced repetition instead of cramming.

 Break complex material into manageable chunks.

Cont…
4. Cognitive Theory of forgetting
 The key to memory is the way in which the material is coded

and organized, as it is stored in the long-term memory bank.

 At every stage, memory can be promote memory or hindered

 At the sensory register level the key to memory is attention.

 Information not attended to is lost or forgotten.

 At the STM, the key to memory is rehearsal.

 Rehearsal takes two forms depending on the reasons why we

want to retain the information in memory.
i) Maintenance rehearsal
 Keeps information in memory briefly and then

discard it.
 E.g. – a mobile phone number - We rehearse the

number until we save it then we forget it.

ii) Elaborative rehearsal

 For information that we wish to transfer to the

LTM
 Involves repetition and linking it with
information already existing in the LTM.
 The two processes ensure that information is

catalogued and filed in the LTM

 At the LTM bank, information is organized in categories.
 Similar items are stored close together in a method

that is close to cataloguing.

 For each item in memory there is an imaginary index

card which is appropriately catalogued.

 Forgetting occurs due to cataloguing errors - mistakes

in how information is encoded, stored, or retrieved.

 These errors can result in inaccuracies or distortions in

our memories.
It occurs if :
 A learner takes in too much information within a short

time.
 If two things are similar one may be remembered in

the place of the other.

Examples of cataloguing errors

 Misattribution - Attributing a memory to the

wrong source or context, memory distortions
where details of a memory are altered or
replaced with inaccurate information.
 Retrieval errors -Difficulty or failure in accessing
the correct memory, often resulting in recalling
partial or incorrect information.
 Overgeneralization -Applying specific memories
too broadly to unrelated situations.
 Interference - Old or new memories interfere
with the retrieval of a target memory.
 Contextual errors -Confusing the time, place, or
circumstances of an event. False memories -
Recalling events that never actually happened
Strategies to minimize cataloguing errors

 Pay full attention to the task being learned – avoid

multitasking because divided attention lead to
incomplete/partial processing of information.
 Elaborate on information – link new information to
existing information or make meaning of what you are
learning
 Chunk information into small manageable tasks
 Practice spaced repetition – reviewing material
regularly strengthens memory and reduce forgetting
 Categorize related information to improve recall
 Minimize stress- practice relaxation techniques
 Practice active recall by self -testing rather than
passively reviewing material
Strategies to minimize
cataloguing errors cont’
 Use contextual cues to recreate the environment in
which the information was learned to aid retrieval
 Avoid cramming since it lead to shallow processing
of information hence difficulty in retrieval
 Manage interference – avoid studying subjects that
are too similar back-to –back to prevent confusion
 Engage in collaborative learning - Study or discuss
material with others to identify gaps or errors in
your memory.
 Summarize -After learning, write summaries in your
own words to ensure you understand and correctly
encode the material.
Other factors that cause
forgetting
• Inadequate rehearsal –if knowledge or
an activity is not repeatedly exercised,
it is gradually forgotten
• Retrieval failure: mismatch between

retrieval cues and encoding of the

information to be recalled
• Meaningless of content

We forget meaningless and useless

content because it does not leave any
imprint on the mind
Cont…
IMPROVING MEMORY/ minimizing Strategies of minimizing forgetting

1. Increasing attention
 Attention - first step to getting information

into memory.
 Involves focusing on relevant information –

selective attention
 Learners should study in quiet distraction

free environments to pay full attention.

Cont…
2. Rehearsal
 Rehearsal -repetition of what has been

learned.
 Learners - have organized study timetables

and be able to conduct individual study.

 Train learners how to engage in distributed

practice over massed practice

 Distributed practice involves spreading
study time across a series of study sessions
-allows information processing and
permanent storage in memory.

 Massed practice Involves cramming

/attempting to learn large amounts of
information in a single session of study.
 Massed practice lead to poor recall due to

fatigue and lack of attention

3. Use of over learning
 Learning content to mastery - Students who

over learn material are more confident

during exams because they already know
the material
4. Train learners the SQ3R method
 Learners can be introduced to the model of study

developed by Robinson (1970) called SQ3R

 Survey - perusing the whole chapter noting sub

topic headings
 Question – as you survey, formulate questions

based on those headings.

 Read the chapter searching for answers to those

questions.
 Reread the chapter and Recite or summarize

the meaning of each section.

 Review what you have learned from reading and

reciting the material.

 5. The use of mnemonic devices
 Mnemonic devices are memory aids or strategies that

help individuals encode, store, and retrieve information

more effectively. Examples of mnemonics:

a) The Peg word method

 Using a peg word system, you associate each to be

remembered word or concept with an easily remembered

peg word. For example a peg word that uses the old
counting rhyme- “one is a bun”, “two is a shoe”, “ three
is a tree”, “four is a door” as the basis for the pegs.
 Each to be remembered item is tied in memory to one of

these phrases.
b)The Loci method
 It involves visualizing placing information in
specific locations in a mental map, such as a
familiar room
 Based on the assumption that you can best

remember places you are familiar with, so you can

link something you need to remember with a place
that you know very well.
 The location will serve as a clue to help you to

remember. E.g. the route to school, with landmarks

along the way becoming the information you need
to memorize.
 Associate each word or concept you need to

memorize with one of landmark.

c) Acronyms
 Creating a word or phrase where each letter

represents an item or concept to remember.

Examples- ROYGBIV: Colors of the rainbow (Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).
d)Acrostics - Creating a sentence or phrase where
the first letter of each word represents the items to
remember.
Examples: Richard Of York Grows Banana In Valleys
- Colors of the rainbow (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
Indigo, Violet).
e) Rhymes and Songs - Using rhymes or melodies
to make information easier to recall.
Example -The ABC Song helps children remember the
alphabet.
 f) Chunking - Breaking information into
smaller, manageable groups or chunks.
Example: A phone number: Instead of
0729567890, remember it as 0729-567-890.
g) Visual Imagery - Associating
information with vivid mental images.
Example: To understand fractions, e.g. ½
- picture an orange divided into two equal
parts, ¼ (divided into 4 equal parts)
6.Don’t overload students’ STM - Overloading the brain
with too much information at once reduces the ability to
effectively process and remember.

7.Elaboration : increasing the meaningfulness of

information

8. Activity: Put the learner in the most active role

possible e.g. groupwork, discovery method,
discussion, debate, Q and A method, explanation etc
9. Deep processing (understanding the meaning of
information) leads to better retention than shallow
processing (e.g., rote memorization).