Topic 2: LEARNING

Theory and application

 LEARNING Outline
• Introduction
 Definition of learning
 Importance of learning
 Principles of learning
 Processes of learning
• Theories of learning
Behaviourism
Cognitivism
Constructivism
Connectictivism
 LEARNING
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.
• The 4 Factors That Form the Definition of
Learning:
1) Learning is inferred from a change in
behavior/performance*
2) Learning results in an inferred change in memory
3) Learning is the result of experience
4) Learning is relatively permanent
 Learning -Definition
• Learning is both an emotional and an
intellectual process.
• A process resulting in some modification,
relatively permanent, of the way of thinking,
feeling, doing, of the learner.
 What is Learning?
• Learning is a process

• Learning is a product
 Process of Learning
• Learning involves the individual
– Brain
– Body
• Learning involves others
– Dyads
– Groups
– Organizations
– Communities
– Society
• Learning takes place somewhere
– In physical environment
– With things and tools
• Learning occurs over time
 Products of Learning
• Learning is about ideas and concepts

• Learning is about behaviors and skills

• Learning is about attitudes and values

 Importance of Learning
 By learning we change ourselves emotionally, psychologically ,
behaviorally to adopt healthy life-style and practices.
 Develop knowledge base, improve oneself and grow as a person.
 Learning new skill gets us access to new and different opportunities.
 Learning a new and appropriate skill or by developing one that links to
the work and rejuvenate working life.
 New skill will influence the way we do things day to day and
make doing things quicker and easier, saving time, energy and
stress.
 Learning across our lives is essential for staying up to date in an ever-
changing world.
 Learning new things is very important for our self-esteem.
 Trying anything different ensures we meet new people, make new
friends and really enhance our social or work life.
 10 Principles of Learning (Horne &
Pine,1990)
 Learning is an experience, which occurs inside the learner and is
activated by the learner.
 Learning is a discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas.
 Learning (Behavioral change) is a consequence of experience.
 Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process. Cooperation
fosters learning.
 Learning is an evolutionary process.
 Learning is sometimes a painful process.
 One of the richest resources of learning is the learner himself.
 The process of learning is both emotional and intellectual.
 The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique and
individual.
 Learning is a process of actively constructing knowledge.
 The characteristics of learning

Learning is-
 Producing a behavioral change in the learner
 Leading to a relatively permanent change that
is also gradual,
 Resulting from practice, repetitions and
experience
 Not directly observable
 Conditions that facilitate learning
An Atmosphere that:
 Encourages people to be active.
 Facilitates the individual’s discovery of the personal
meaning of ideas.
 Emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of
learning.
 In which difference is good and desirable.
 Recognizes the right to make mistakes.
 Tolerates ambiguity.
 In which evaluation is a cooperative process with
emphasis on self- evaluation.
 -Encourages openness of self rather than concealment of
self.
 Cont..
• In which people are encouraged to trust in
themselves as well as in external sources.
• In which people feel they are respected.
• In which people feel they are accepted.
• Which permits confrontation.
• The most effective teacher creates conditions
by which he loses the teaching function. (Rogers
1951:p 122)
 Types of Learning (As in K. Park)

i. Cognitive Learning (Knowledge)

ii. Psychomotor Learning (Skill)
iii. Affective Learning (Attitude)
• Cognitive: Mental skills (knowledge).
• Psychomotor: Manual or physical skills (skills)
• Affective: Growth in feelings or emotional
areas (attitude or self).
 Four Processes of Learning

• Watching -Senses -perceiving information

• Thinking - Mind – reflecting how it impacts life
• Feeling - Emotions – fitting into learners
experiences
• Doing -Muscle – performing new ways to act
 Theories of learning
What is a theory?
 A theory provides a general explanation for observations made
over time.
 Learning theories describe the conditions and processes
through which learning occurs, providing teachers with models
to develop instruction sessions that lead to better learning.
 These theories explain the processes that people engage in as
they make sense of information, and how they integrate that
information into their mental models so that it becomes new
knowledge.
 Learning theories also examine what motivates people to learn,
and what circumstances enable or hinder learning.
 Learning theories as glasses
• What would a classroom
look like as viewed through
the lens of:
– Plato (rationalist)
– Aristotle (empiricist)
– Locke (tabula rasa)
• Or from these perspectives?
– Behaviorism-classical/
operant/
– Social cognitivism
– Cognitivism
– Constructivism
– Connectivism
a. Behaviorism theories

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational learning
 1. Behaviorism theories
• Behaviorism, as a learning theory, focuses on observable behaviors and their
relationship with environmental stimuli. The main types of behaviorism include:
• Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)
– Developed by Ivan Pavlov, this type focuses on associating a neutral stimulus with an
unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
– Example: A dog salivating at the sound of a bell because it has learned to associate the
bell with food.
• Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning)
– Proposed by B.F. Skinner, it emphasizes reinforcement and punishment to increase or
decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
– Example: A child receiving a reward for completing homework (positive reinforcement)
or a fine for breaking a rule (punishment).
• Social Learning Theory (Behaviorist Component)
– While Albert Bandura’s theory is often categorized under social-cognitive theories, its
behaviorist aspect focuses on learning through observation, imitation, and modeling of
behaviors.
– Example: A child learning aggressive behavior by watching a model act aggressively in
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment.
 1.1 Behaviourism : Classical conditioning
• Classical conditioning is associated with Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936) - Russian physiologist interested in
behavior (digestion) and it is often called Pavlovian
conditioning or respondent conditioning
• Classical Conditioning is a form of learning that occurs
when two stimuli –neutral stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus – that are “paired” (presented together)
become associated with each other.
• It is also defined as a type of learning in which a
stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a reflexive
response that was originally evoked by a different
stimulus.
 Before conditioning

• In order to have classical or respondent

conditioning, there must exist a stimulus that will
automatically or reflexively elicit a specific
response. This stimulus is called the
Unconditioned Stimulus or UCS because there is
no learning involved in connecting the stimulus
and response. There must also be a stimulus that
will not elicit this specific response, but will elicit
an orienting response. This stimulus is called a
Neutral Stimulus or an Orienting Stimulus.
 During conditioning

• During conditioning, the neutral stimulus will

first be presented, followed by the
unconditioned stimulus. Over time, the
learner will develop an association between
these two stimuli (i.e., will learn to make a
connection between the two stimuli.)
 After conditioning

• After conditioning, the previously neutral or

orienting stimulus will elicit the response previously
only elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. The
stimulus is now called a conditioned stimulus
because it will now elicit a different response as a
result of conditioning or learning. The response is
now called a conditioned response because it is
elicited by a stimulus as a result of learning. The
two responses, unconditioned and conditioned,
look the same, but they are elicited by different
stimuli and are therefore given different labels.
 Terminology
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that evokes an
unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning
needed for the response to occur).
• Unconditioned Response (UCR) - an unlearned reaction/response
to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior
conditioning.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral stimulus that has,
through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned
response.
• Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction to a conditioned
stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning.
• Conditioning- refers to the fact that the learner forms an association
usually between a stimulus and a response or between two stimuli.
 Basic Principles:

a) Acquisition
• There are several different ways conditioning can occur -- order that the
stimulus-response can occur:
• Delayed conditioning (forward) - the CS is presented before the UCS and it
(CS) stays on until the UCS is presented. This is generally the best,
especially when the delay is short. example - a bell begins to ring and
continues to ring until food is presented.
• Trace conditioning - discrete event is presented, and then the UCS occurs.
Shorter the interval the better, but as you can tell, this approach is not very
effective. example - a bell begins ringing and ends just before the food is
presented.
• Simultaneous conditioning - CS and UCS presented together. Not very
good. example - the bell begins to ring at the same time the food is
presented. Both begin, continue, and end at the same time.
• Backward conditioning - UCS occurs before CS. example - the food is
presented, then the bell rings. This is not really effective.
 Basic Principles

b) Extinction
• This is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the
CR tendency. Extinction occurs from multiple presentations of
CS without the UCS.
• Essentially, the organism continues to be presented with the
conditioned stimulus but without the unconditioned stimulus
the CS loses its power to evoke the CR. For example, Pavlov's
dogs stopped salivating when the dispenser sound kept
occurring without the meat powder following.
c) Spontaneous Recovery - sometimes there will be a
reappearance of a response that had been extinguished. The
recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the CS. It
is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear
out of nowhere.
 Basic Principles
d) Stimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus
becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now
occurs to those other similar stimuli.
• For Example - a child who gets bitten by black dog, later
becomes afraid of all dogs. The original fear evoked by the
Black dog has now generalized to ALL dogs.
f) Stimulus Discrimination - learning to respond to one
stimulus and not another. Thus, an organism becomes
conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to
other stimuli.
• For Example - a puppy may initially respond to lots of
different people, but over time it learns to respond to only
one or a few people's commands.
 Classroom application
• Classical conditioning can be effectively applied in the classroom to
influence students' behaviors, attitudes, and learning experiences.
Here are some applications:
• 1. Creating Positive Classroom Atmosphere. Teachers can associate
a positive environment (e.g., friendly tone, encouraging feedback,
and engaging activities) with the classroom itself.
Example: Playing calming music during class activities may condition
students to associate the classroom with a calm and focused state.
• 2. Reducing Anxiety: Students who associate tests or public
speaking with fear or anxiety can be gradually conditioned to feel
more relaxed through positive reinforcement.
Example: A teacher offers encouragement or small rewards for
answering questions aloud, helping students overcome their fear of
participation.
 Cont…

• 3. Encouraging Good Behavior: Pairing praise, rewards, or verbal

affirmations with desired behaviors can condition students to
associate those behaviors with positive outcomes.
Example: A teacher saying "Well done!" when a student completes a
task may condition the student to feel satisfied and motivated to
repeat the behavior.
• 4. Establishing Routines: Associating specific stimuli with particular
activities can help students transition smoothly between tasks.
Example: Ringing a bell to signal the end of playtime conditions
students to associate the sound with the need to return to their seats
and focus.
• 5. Addressing Negative Associations: Teachers can work to replace
negative associations with positive ones.
Example: If a student dislikes math due to prior struggles, the teacher
can introduce fun, interactive math games to help the student
develop a more positive attitude toward the subject.
 Cont…

• 6. Building Confidence in Difficult Subjects: Associating

success in challenging subjects with positive emotions can
help improve students’ confidence.
Example: After a student completes a difficult math
problem, the teacher provides immediate praise, which
builds an association between math and feelings of
achievement.
• 7. Developing a Growth Mindset: Provide encouragement
during difficult tasks to help students associate effort with
personal growth and success.
• Example: Celebrating effort and improvement rather than
just outcomes helps students associate challenges with
positive feedback, promoting persistence.
 1.2 Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning can be defined as a type
of learning in which voluntary (controllable;
non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is
reinforced and weakened if it is punished (or
not reinforced).
• The most prominent figure in the development
and study of Operant Conditioning was B. F.
Skinner
 Principles of Reinforcement

• a) Skinner identified two types of reinforcing events - those in which a

reward is given; and those in which something bad is removed. In either
case, the point of reinforcement is to increase the frequency or
probability of a response occurring again.

• Positive reinforcement - event that is presented after the target response

that increases the likelihood that the target response will occur again.
Give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant response is made.
For example, a rat presses the lever (operant response) and it receives a
treat (positive reinforcement)

• Negative reinforcement - Event that is removed after the target response,

thereby increasing the likelihood that this response will occur again (is
NOT punishment!!!) .Take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant
response is made. For example, stop shocking a rat when it presses the
lever.
 Two types of reinforcers

• Primary reinforcer - stimulus that naturally strengthens any

response that precedes it (e.g., food, water,) without the
need for any learning on the part of the organism. These
reinforcers are naturally reinforcing. Stimulus that has innate(
unlearned) reinforcing properties
• Secondary/conditioned reinforcer - a previously neutral
stimulus that acquires the ability to strengthen responses
because the stimulus has been paired with a primary
reinforcer. For example, an organism may become
conditioned to the sound of food dispenser, which occurs
after the operant response is made. Thus, the sound of the
food dispenser becomes reinforcing. Notice the similarity to
Classical Conditioning, with the exception that the behavior is
voluntary and occurs before the presentation of a reinforcer.
 Schedules of Reinforcement

• There are two types of reinforcement schedules - continuous,

and partial/intermittent (four subtypes of partial schedules)
• Fixed Ratio (FR) - reinforcement given after every Nth
responses, where N is the size of the ratio (i.e., a certain
number of responses have to occur before getting
reinforcement).
• Variable Ratio (VR) - the variable ration schedule is the same
as the FR except that the ratio varies, and is not stable like the
FR schedule.
• Fixed Interval (FI) - a designated amount of time must pass,
and then a certain response must be given.
• Variable Interval (VI) - same as FI but now the time interval
varies when response is given.
 PUNISHMENT

TWO TYPES
• Positive punishment: Presentation of an aversive stimulus
Example: Giving extra assignments to students who are disruptive in
class.
Application:Use sparingly and ensure that consequences are appropriate
and fair. For example, remind a noisy student by saying, “If we can’t focus,
we’ll have to spend extra time reviewing this after class.”

• Negative punishment: Removal of a pleasant stimulus

Example: Taking away privileges, such as free time or access to classroom
games, if a student behaves inappropriately.
Application:For example, a student may lose recess time for not following
rules. Explain the connection between their behavior and the
consequence to help them learn.
 Alternative forms of punishment
• Verbal reprimands
• Restitution and overcorrection-take action that
corrects misdeeds
• Restitution overcorrection- make things better than
before
• Positive- practice overcorrection- repeat action but
do it correctly, perhaps in exaggerated fashion
• Time out – place in environment with no reinforcers
• In-house suspension
• Response cost- pay for the mistake
 Ineffective forms of punishment

• Physical punishment
• Psychological punishment
• Extra class work
• Out of school suspension
• Missing recess – lunch, break, etc
 Application
• 1. Positive Reinforcement: Providing rewards to
encourage desirable behavior.
• Examples:
– Giving verbal praise, or points when a student completes their
homework or answers a question correctly.
– Offering extra recess time for consistent class participation or
good behavior.
• 2. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant
stimulus to encourage desirable behavior.
• Examples:
– Allowing students to skip a challenging assignment if they
demonstrate mastery in a specific skill.
– Reducing the amount of homework if the class behaves well or
performs excellently during a lesson.
 Application
• 3. Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to
discourage undesirable behavior.
• Examples:
– Assigning additional work when students are disruptive in class.
– Using a verbal reprimand when a student talks out of turn during
a lesson.
• 4. Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to
discourage undesirable behavior.
• Examples:
– Taking away free-time privileges when students fail to follow
class rules.
– Removing participation in a fun activity if a group disrupts the
class.
 Cont…
• 5. Token Economy System: A system where students earn tokens
(e.g., points, stars, or coins) for positive behaviors, which can
later be exchanged for rewards.
• Examples:
– Earning tokens for completing assignments on time or helping peers.
– Using tokens to "buy" privileges like choosing a classroom game or
sitting in a special spot.
• 6. Shaping: Reinforcing small steps toward a desired behavior to
help students achieve complex goals.
• Examples:
– Praising a student for attempting to read aloud, even if they stumble,
and gradually increasing expectations for fluency.
– Rewarding students for writing one sentence initially, then
progressively requiring more sentences as they improve.
• 7. Behavior Contracts: Agreements between the teacher
and student that outline expected behaviors and associated
consequences.
• Examples:
– A contract stating that a student will earn extra computer time if
they stay seated and on-task for the entire class.
• 8. Immediate Feedback: Providing immediate reinforcement
or correction to strengthen or weaken behaviors.
• Examples:
– Giving instant praise when a student completes a problem
correctly.
– Correcting disruptive behavior immediately to prevent it from
continuing.
• 9. Classroom Management Through Group
Reinforcement: Encouraging collective
behavior by using group rewards or
consequences.
• Examples:
– Rewarding the entire class with a fun activity if
everyone submits homework on time for a week.
– Reducing privileges (e.g., no group game) if the
majority of students fail to follow classroom rules.
 CONT…
10 Schedules of Reinforcement
• Definition: Timing and frequency of reinforcement to
shape behaviors.
• Example:
– Continuous reinforcement: Giving praise every time a
student raises their hand.
– Intermittent reinforcement: Rewarding participation
randomly to sustain engagement.
• Application:
– Use intermittent reinforcement for long-term behaviors, such
as consistently following class rules.
– Transition from continuous to intermittent reinforcement to
encourage intrinsic motivation.
 1.3 Observational learning
• Observational learning, also known as social learning or
modeling, is a process where individuals learn by watching
the behaviors of others and the consequences of those
behaviors.
• Albert Bandura, the psychologist most associated with
observational learning, identified several key principles
involved in this process: attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation.
• These principles can be applied effectively in the
classroom to promote positive behaviors, improve
academic performance, and enhance learning outcomes.
 2. Types of observational learning

1) Vicarious conditioning
2) Modeling
• Vicarious conditioning- occurs when a child learns from the
consequences of another child’s behaviour. When consequences
are good the child imitates the behaviour and vice versa
• Modeling: occurs through direct observation of a model. Here a
person who represents a childs desires is emulated.
Key Components of modeling
• Attention: Students need to focus on the behavior being modeled.
• Retention: They must remember what they observed.
• Reproduction: They should practice or replicate the behavior.
• Motivation: Positive reinforcement or intrinsic rewards encourage
students to adopt the behavior.
 Benefits of Observational Learning in the Classroom

• Improves Academic Skills: Students can observe

problem-solving techniques, writing strategies, or
experiments performed by teachers or peers.
• Enhances Social Skills: Watching others helps
students learn how to collaborate, resolve conflicts,
or practice empathy.
• Increases Engagement: Seeing peers succeed can
motivate students to participate more actively.
• Supports Diverse Learning Styles: It complements
auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learning preferences.
 Examples of Observational Learning in the Classroom

• Teacher Modeling: A teacher demonstrating how to

solve a math problem or write a persuasive essay.
• Peer Demonstration: A student showing the class how
to complete a project or solve a complex problem.
• Videos and Media: Using educational videos to show
expert techniques or real-world applications.
• Role-Playing Activities: Students acting out scenarios to
practice behaviors like active listening or conflict
resolution.
• Group Work: Encouraging collaborative work where
students can observe effective strategies from peers.
b. Cognitivism learning theory
Information processing
Concept learning
Problem solving
Insightful learning
 Cognitivism learning theory
• Cognitivism is a theory of learning that emphasizes the role of mental
processes in understanding how people learn.
• According to cognitivism, learning involves the transformation of
information that is processed by the brain, similar to how a computer
processes data.
• It focuses on how learners organize, store, and retrieve information. This
theory is distinct from behaviorism because it focuses more on the
internal cognitive processes rather than just external behaviors.
• In relation to learning, cognitivism can play a significant role in the way
learners are assessed and supported through their learning journeys.
• CBE is an educational approach where learners progress upon mastering
specific competencies, meaning they move forward when they have
demonstrated the ability to perform a particular task or demonstrate
understanding of a concept.
 Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory
1. Active Learning: Learning is an active process where the learner
constructs knowledge by interacting with the environment, rather
than passively receiving information.
2. Schema Development: Learners organize information into
schemas—mental frameworks or structures that help them process
and understand new information by connecting it to prior
knowledge.
3. Prior Knowledge: Learning builds upon what the learner already
knows. Activating and connecting to prior knowledge improves
understanding and retention.
4. Meaningful Learning :Information is better retained when it is
meaningful and relevant to the learner's life, interests, or goals.
5. Metacognition: Learners should be aware of their own learning
processes (thinking about thinking). This includes planning,
monitoring, and evaluating their understanding and strategies.
 Cont..

• 6. Information Processing: The mind is like a computer, processing

information through stages such as sensory input, short-term memory,
and long-term memory. Effective learning requires attention and
rehearsal to transfer information into long-term memory.
• 7. Cognitive Load: Overloading a learner with too much information
can hinder learning. Effective instruction manages cognitive load to
prevent overwhelm.
• 8. Social Interaction: Learning is enhanced through collaboration,
discussion, and interaction with others, which helps clarify and
reinforce understanding.
• 9. Feedback: Immediate and constructive feedback helps learners
adjust their understanding and improve their performance.
• 10. Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking: Learning is strengthened
when learners are challenged to solve problems, analyze situations,
and apply knowledge in new contexts.
 INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL: MEMORY PROCESSES

• Memory is essentially the capacity for storing

and retrieving information. Three processes are
involved in memory: encoding, storage, and
retrieval. All these processes determine whether
something is remembered or forgotten.
 A) Encoding

• Encoding - process of forming a memory code in

order to get information into memory.
Different ways of encoding verbal information
• Structural encoding focuses on what words look
like. For instance, one might note whether words
are long or short, in uppercase or lowercase, or
handwritten or typed.
• Phonemic encoding focuses on how words sound.
• Semantic encoding focuses on the meaning of
words.
Encoding, may be enhanced by means of
• visual imagery: formation of visual images of things to be
remembered
• elaboration: developing an association/link to the topic to be
remembered
• relevance: making the material to be remembered personally
relevant and through the following organizational procedures:
-Chunking: organizing the material to be remembered into
groups, as, for example, telephone numbers are arranged—
(area code) (three digits) (four digits).
-Hierarchies: grouping information to be remembered into
categories and possibly into hierarchies consisting of major
and minor concepts
 B) Storage
• Information is stored sequentially in three
memory systems:
• sensory memory,
• short-term memory,
• and long-term memory
 A) Sensory memory

• It stores incoming sensory information in

detail but only for an instant.
• The capacity of sensory memory is very large,
but the information in it is unprocessed.
• Visual sensory memory is called iconic
memory; auditory sensory memory is called
echoic memory
 Short-Term Memory

• Some of the information in sensory memory transfers to short-term memory,

which can hold information for approximately 20 seconds
• What happens when our short term memory is full and another bit of
information enters? Displacement means that the new information will push
out part of the old information. Suddenly some one says the area code for that
phone number and almost instantly you forget the last two digits of the number.

The main functions of your short-term memory are:

• Attention: To help you focus on something in your environment.
• Recognition: To connect or match new information to information that’s already
in your brain.
 Keeping information longer in STM
• Short-term memory has a limited capacity: it can store about 7
pieces of information, plus or minus 2 pieces.
• These pieces of information can be small, such as individual
numbers or letters, or larger, such as familiar strings of
numbers, words, or sentences. Two methods can be used to
keep information longer….
• A method called chunking can help to increase the capacity of
short-term memory. Chunking combines small bits of
information into bigger, familiar pieces
• Rehearsing Rehearsal is the process of repeating information to
be retained, ostensibly keeping it in short-term memory.
Rehearsal allows new information to be strengthened which
results in a likelihood of this information being stored in the
long-term memory
 Long-Term Memory
• Long-term memory has an almost infinite
capacity, and information in long-term
memory usually stays there for the duration of
a person’s life.
• Information may be in LTM but may be
difficult to retrieve
 Subcategories of LTM
• Implicit vs. explicit memory
• Declarative vs. procedural memory
• Semantic vs. episodic memory
 Implicit/explicit
• implicit memory - Unconscious retention of
information.
• Explicit memory is conscious, intentional
remembering of information.
 Declarative vs. Procedural Memory
• Declarative memory is recall of factual
information such as dates, words, faces,
events, and concepts.
• Procedural memory is recall of how to do
things such as swimming, riding a bicycle or
driving a car
 Semantic vs. Episodic Memory

• Declarative memory is of two types: semantic

and episodic. Semantic memory is recall of
general facts, it contains knowledge necessary
for the use of language. Semantic memory
includes, information about words and
symbols, and the rules, formulas, or algorithms,
• while episodic memory is recall of personal
facts. It may be of an event that you
experienced at a particular time and place.
 C) Retrieval (remembering)

• Retrieval is the process of getting information

out of memory.
• Retrieval cues are stimuli that help the
process of retrieval.
• Retrieval cues include associations, context,
and mood
 Cont…

a) Associations
• Because the brain stores information as
networks of associated concepts, recalling a
particular word becomes easier if another,
related word is recalled Example: If Kasandi
shows her roommate a picture of a game park
and then asks him to spell the word lion, the
roommate may be more likely to spell lion
because the picture primed her to recall that
form of the word.first. This process is called
priming.
• b) Context
• People can often remember an event by placing
themselves in the same context they were in
when the event happened. Example: If you lose
keys, you may be able to recall where you put
them if you re-create in your mind exactly what
you did when you last came in class
• c) Mood; If people are in the same mood they
were in during an event, they may have an
easier time recalling the event.
 Implications for Learning:

• Chunking: One strategy for overcoming the limitations of short-term

memory is chunking, where related pieces of information are grouped
together into larger, meaningful units (e.g., remembering a long string
of numbers as smaller groups like phone numbers or dates).
• Practice and Repetition: Rehearsing information and engaging in
deliberate practice can strengthen neural connections and help move
information from short-term to long-term memory.
• Active Engagement: Active learning techniques (such as problem-
solving, critical thinking, and using mnemonic devices) engage deeper
cognitive processes, helping learners to better encode and retain
information.
• Context and Retrieval Cues: Using contextual cues (e.g., environment
or emotions) during learning can improve later retrieval. The more
closely the learning context matches the recall context, the better
retrieval can be.
 Information Processing in Education
• In education, Information Processing Theory can influence how
educators design instructional materials, create assessments, and
structure learning activities.
• For example:
i. Breaking down complex information: Information should be
chunked into smaller, digestible parts, helping students process
and store information more effectively.
ii. Use of retrieval practice: Encouraging students to practice
retrieving information (e.g., through quizzes or spaced repetition)
can enhance long-term retention.
iii. Building on prior knowledge: Educators can activate students'
existing schemas and knowledge by relating new information to
things they already know, improving encoding and recall.
 Concept Learning
• Concept Learning refers to the process of acquiring and understanding
general principles, categories, or ideas that enable individuals to identify
and classify objects, events, or experiences.
• It involves the mental organization of knowledge into meaningful
categories based on common attributes or relationships, which helps in
reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Defining Concepts
• Concepts are mental categories that group similar objects, events, or
ideas based on shared attributes.
• For example, a "dog" concept might include animals that have fur, bark,
and are domesticated.
• Prototype: A typical example of a concept. For instance, the prototypical
dog might be a common breed like a Labrador, which embodies the
essential traits of the concept "dog."
 Features of Concept Learning

• Categorization: Learners group similar items or

ideas under a single category based on shared
characteristics.
• Generalization: Learners apply the learned concept
to new and unfamiliar situations.
• Discrimination: Learners distinguish between
examples (positive instances) and non-examples
(negative instances) of a concept.
• Abstraction: Learners identify key attributes that
define the concept while ignoring irrelevant details.
 Concept Formation

• Rule-Based Learning: Learning concepts by applying a

specific rule or criteria. For example, a concept like "even
numbers" is defined by the rule that numbers divisible by 2
are even.
• Prototype-Based Learning: Learning concepts based on the
most representative examples (prototypes). For example,
"bird" might be initially understood as a flying animal with
feathers, and other species like penguins or ostriches might
be added as exceptions.
• Exemplar-Based Learning: Learning by comparing new
instances with specific examples already learned. For
example, after learning the concept "fruit" by seeing apples
and oranges, you might recognize new fruits like mangoes as
fruits based on past examples.
 Types of Concepts

• Concrete Concepts: Represent tangible and

observable objects (e.g., "circle," "cat," "tree").
• Abstract Concepts: Represent intangible ideas or
qualities (e.g., "freedom," "justice," "love").
• Relational Concepts: Involve relationships
between objects or ideas (e.g., "greater than,"
"opposite of").
• Compound Concepts: Combine multiple ideas or
attributes (e.g., "a triangle with three equal
sides").
 The Process of Concept Learning

• Observation and Identification: Learners are exposed to

examples and non-examples of the concept.
• Attribute Analysis: Learners identify the critical attributes
that define the concept.
• Hypothesis Formation: Learners form a mental rule or
hypothesis about what the concept includes.
• Testing and Refinement: Learners test their
understanding by applying the concept to new examples
or situations.
• Confirmation: Learners solidify the concept once their
understanding is validated through repetition and
feedback.
 Methods to Facilitate Concept Learning

• Exemplar-Based Learning: Presenting positive and

negative examples to help learners identify the defining
attributes.
• Rule-Based Learning: Providing clear definitions or rules
that describe the concept.
• Analogies and Comparisons: Using relatable examples to
bridge the gap between familiar and unfamiliar concepts.
• Active Engagement: Encouraging learners to categorize,
classify, and explore relationships through activities.
• Scaffolding: Gradually introducing complex concepts by
starting with simpler, foundational ones.
 Applications in Education

• Science: Teaching categories like mammals,

chemical reactions, or energy forms.
• Mathematics: Learning shapes, patterns, or
algebraic principles.
• Language Learning: Understanding grammar
rules, word categories, or figurative language.
• Social Studies: Exploring abstract concepts like
democracy, culture, or globalization.
 Importance of Concept Learning

• Concept learning is crucial for several reasons:

• Enhances Critical Thinking: It encourages students to think
critically and make connections between different pieces of
information.
• Promotes Long-term Retention: Understanding concepts leads
to better retention of knowledge compared to memorizing facts.
• Facilitates Problem-solving Skills: It enables students to apply
learned concepts to new and varied situations, fostering
problem-solving abilities.
• Encourages Active Learning: Students become active
participants in their learning process, which increases
engagement and motivation.
 Methods of Concept Learning

• Inquiry-based Learning:
– Students explore topics by asking questions and
conducting investigations.
– This method nurtures curiosity and independent
thinking.
• Project-based Learning:
 PROBLEM SOLVING AND CRITICAL THINKING

• Learning how to solve problems effectively and positively is a

crucial part of child development. When children are allowed
to solve problems in a classroom setting, they can test those
skills in a safe and nurturing environment. Generally, when
they face age-appropriate issues, they can begin building those
skills in a healthy and positive manner.
• Without exposure to challenging situations and scenarios,
children will not be equipped with the foundational problem-
solving skills needed to tackle complex issues in the real world.
Experts predict that problem-solving skills will eventually be
more sought after in job applicants than hard skills related to
that specific profession. Students must be given opportunities
in school to resolve conflicts, address complex problems and
come up with their own solutions in order to develop these
skills.
• "Problem-solving skills in learning" refers to
the ability to identify, analyze, and effectively
resolve challenges encountered during the
learning process, often involving critical
thinking, creative approaches, and decision-
making to reach a solution, which is
considered a crucial aspect of effective
learning and development across various
subjects and situations.
 Key aspects of problem-solving skills in
learning:
Understanding the problem: Clearly defining the issue at hand, gathering
relevant information, and breaking down complex problems into
manageable parts.
Generating solutions: Brainstorming a variety of potential solutions,
considering different perspectives, and thinking creatively to come up with
innovative approaches.
Evaluating options: Analyzing each potential solution, weighing pros and
cons, and identifying the most viable option based on available information.
Implementing a solution: Developing a clear plan of action, taking
necessary steps to execute the chosen solution, and monitoring progress.
Reflecting on the process: Evaluating the effectiveness of the solution,
identifying areas for improvement, and learning from mistakes made.
 How problem-solving skills benefit learning:

• Deeper understanding:: Actively engaging with material by

trying to solve problems promotes a more profound grasp of
concepts.
Adaptability: Develops the ability to adjust strategies and
approaches when faced with new challenges or unexpected
situations.
Critical thinking: Encourages students to analyze information,
identify biases, and draw logical conclusions.
Self-efficacy: Builds confidence in one's ability to tackle
complex problems independently.
Real-world application: Prepares learners to apply knowledge
and skills to solve practical problems in various contexts.
 Learning activities that foster problem-solving skills
• Open-ended questions: Questions that encourage students
to think critically and generate multiple possible answers.
Case studies: Analyzing real-world scenarios with complex
issues to develop potential solutions.
Project-based learning: Working on projects that require
students to identify problems, design solutions, and
implement them.
Debates and discussions: Engaging in thoughtful
conversations where students must articulate their
reasoning and consider different viewpoints.
Inquiry-based learning: Encouraging students to ask
questions, research information, and draw their own
conclusions.
 Insightful Learning

• Insight learning theory sheds light on those ‘aha’

moments when solutions suddenly click. Insightful
learning is a concept in educational psychology that
describes a type of learning that occurs when a
person suddenly realizes the solution to a problem
or gains a deep understanding of a concept. This
process often involves seeing the relationships
between various elements of a problem or
situation in a new way, leading to a "eureka"
moment or a breakthrough in understanding
 Characteristics of Insightful Learning

• Suddenness: The realization of the solution often

comes unexpectedly after a period of contemplation or
frustration.
• Reorganization of Information: Insightful learning
involves perceiving relationships and reorganizing
existing knowledge to make sense of a problem.
• Understanding: It results in a clear understanding of
the underlying principles or connections, making it
easier to transfer the knowledge to other similar
situations.
• Non-linear Process: It does not follow a step-by-step
procedure but instead involves a leap in cognition.
 Four Stages of Insight Learning Theory

• Insight learning unfolds in a series of distinct stages, each contributing to the

journey from problem recognition to the sudden realization of a solution. These
stages are as follows:
• 1. Problem Recognition
The first stage of insight learning involves recognizing and defining the problem
at hand. This may entail identifying obstacles, discrepancies, or gaps in
understanding that need to be addressed. Problem recognition sets the stage
for the subsequent stages of insight learning by framing the problem and
guiding the individual’s cognitive processes toward finding a solution.
• 2. Incubation
After recognizing the problem, individuals often enter a period of incubation
where the mind continues to work on the problem unconsciously. During this
stage, the brain engages in background processing, making connections, and
reorganizing information without the individual’s conscious awareness.
While it may seem like a period of inactivity on the surface, incubation is a
crucial phase where ideas gestate, and creative solutions take shape beneath
the surface of conscious thought.
 Cont…
• 3. Illumination
The illumination stage marks the sudden emergence of insight or understanding. It is
characterized by a moment of clarity and realization, where the solution to the
problem becomes apparent in a flash of insight.
This “aha” moment often feels spontaneous and surprising, as if the solution has been
waiting just below the surface of conscious awareness to be revealed. Illumination is
the culmination of the cognitive processes initiated during problem recognition and
incubation, resulting in a breakthrough in understanding.
• 4. Verification
Following the illumination stage, individuals verify the validity and feasibility of their
insights by testing the proposed solution. This may involve applying the solution in
practice, checking it against existing knowledge or expertise, or seeking feedback from
others.
Verification serves to confirm the efficacy of the newfound understanding and ensure
its practical applicability in solving the problem at hand. It also provides an opportunity
to refine and iterate on the solution based on real-world feedback and experience.
Substitution or alteration to the recipe that works surprisingly well. This moment of
improvisation demonstrates insight learning in action.
• This type of learning is all about those “aha” experiences
that feel like magic. The key principles of insight learning
involve recognizing patterns, making connections, and
restructuring our thoughts. It’s as if our brains suddenly
rearrange the pieces of a puzzle, revealing the big picture.
So, next time you have a brilliant idea pop into your head
out of nowhere, you might just be experiencing insight
learning in action!.
• The term is often associated with Gestalt psychology and
the work of Wolfgang Köhler, who studied problem-solving
in chimpanzees. Köhler's experiments demonstrated how
animals and humans can arrive at solutions through
insight rather than trial-and-error learning.
 Applications in Education

• To encourage insightful learning, educators can:

• Use problem-based learning approaches that
challenge students to find connections and think
critically.
• Encourage exploration and creativity by allowing
students to approach problems in their own
ways.
• Provide opportunities for students to reflect on
their learning processes and experiences.
 Examples of Insightful Learning

• A student solving a complex math problem by

recognizing a hidden pattern in the question.
• An inventor coming up with an innovative
design after connecting unrelated concepts.
• Figuring out how to fix a household appliance
by rethinking its mechanism.
c. CONSTRUCTIVISM
 Constructivist learning theory
• Constructivist learning theory is based on the
idea that learners actively construct their own
understanding and knowledge through
experiences and interactions with their
environment.
• This theory emphasizes the importance of
learners' prior knowledge and experiences in
shaping new learning, rather than simply
absorbing information passively.
 Cont…
• The constructivist theory of learning emphasizes the
importance of social interaction in the learning
process, as learners absorb information in two ways:
• Assimilation: Learners take in information from their
environment and integrate it into what they already
know.
• Accommodation: Learners adjust their existing
understanding to incorporate new knowledge or
experiences.
• These two methods of learning are used either
interchangeably or simultaneously by all learners to
better comprehend their environment and those in it
 The main points of the theory of
constructivism
 Knowledge is constructed through
interactions between individuals and their
environment.
 Learning is a process of actively constructing
one's own understanding of the world.
 Learners are motivated by their own
interests and curiosity.
 Learners use problem-solving and critical
thinking to construct new knowledge
 5E cycle
The constructivist learning approach is founded around the
5E cycle :
• Engagement phase- Teachers’ aim is to stimulate students'
interest and curiosity regarding the topic that will be
addressed.
• Exploration phase - Involves students actively
participating in activities designed by the teachers to test
hypotheses, record observation data, or engage in
discussions with peers.
• Explanation phase – Teachers prompt their students to
articulate an idea using their own words. The teacher seeks
further clarification from the students regarding their
explanations, or fellow students are invited to provide
constructive criticism
• Elaboration phase - Teachers offer feedback
and clarification to address students'
misconceptions. They also provide
opportunity for students to establish
connections between concepts and enhance
their cognitive structure by linking or
developing concepts with their skills.
• Evaluation phase- the focus is on diagnosing
and measuring the level of knowledge and
comprehension that students have developed
through their practice.
 3 main types of constructivism

• There are three main types of constructivism that have been identified,
each having a significant (and slightly altered) impact on the way learners
interact with their environment.
• 1. Social constructivism: This type of constructivism emphasizes the
importance of social interaction in learning. It suggests that learners
understand and internalize new concepts and ideas through
collaboration, dialogue, and discourse with other people.
• 2. Cognitive constructivism: This type of constructivism focuses on the
individual learner’s ability to form meaning from their experiences. It
views learning as an active process where knowledge is constructed by
each individual through reflection, exploration, experimentation,
problem-solving, and critical thinking.
• 3. Radical constructivism: This type of constructivism stresses the idea
that knowledge is subjective and personal. Knowledge cannot be shared
or transferred between individuals because their unique perspective will
cause them to interpret information differently.
 Features of a constructivist classroom
• A constructivist classroom emphasizes active
learning
• Collaboration
• Viewing a concept or problem from multiple
perspectives
• Reflection
• Student-centeredness
• Authentic assessment to promote meaningful
learning and help students construct their own
understanding of the world.
 Teaching goals of constructivist classrooms

Honebein (1996) summarized the 7 teaching

goals of constructivist learning environments:
1) To provide experience with the knowledge
construction process (students determine
how they will learn).
2) To provide experience in and appreciation
for multiple perspectives (evaluation of
alternative solutions).
3) To embed learning in realistic contexts
(authentic tasks).
• To encourage ownership and a voice in the
learning process (student-centered learning).
• To embed learning in social experience
(collaboration).
• To encourage the use of multiple modes of
representation, (video, audio text, etc.)
• To encourage awareness of the knowledge
construction process (reflection, metacognition).
 Role of the teacher in a constructivism
classroom

• Constructivism is a way of teaching where

instead of just telling students what to believe,
teachers encourage them to think for
themselves.
• This means that teachers need to believe that
students are capable of thinking and coming up
with their own ideas.
• From this perspective, a teacher acts as a
facilitator of learning rather than an instructor.
The primary responsibility of the teacher includes:
 Creating a collaborative problem-solving
environment where students become active
participants in their own learning.
 Making sure he/she understands the students”
preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity
to address them and then build on them
 Providing the tools and media necessary for the
students to acquire experience
 Scaffolding the learners, where the teacher
continually adjusts the level of his or her help in
response to the learner’s level of performance.
 Principles of constructivism
• Knowledge is constructed: Everyone begins learning with
some preexisting knowledge. Constructivist definition
suggests that learners have a set of preconceived ideas and
will actively construct meaning from new experiences.
• Learning is a social activity: Group interactions are
important to creating understanding. Constructivist
approach focuses on the social construction of knowledge
and understanding in the context of dialogue and
collaboration.
• Learning is an active process: Learning requires a sensory
response. Constructivist paradigm emphasizes that
learning should be interactive and involve learners in
direct experience with their environment.
• Learning is contextual: Learning occurs in the situation
within the context of an individual’s life. This means that
learning should be embedded in our real-world contexts
to provide meaningful engagement
• People learn to learn as they learn: Learners get better at
selecting and organizing information. Constructivist
theory suggests that learners need to learn how to learn
and become better at recognizing patterns in information
and developing strategies for problem-solving.
• Learning exists in the mind: Learning requires active
engagement and reflection. Constructivist design
emphasizes the role of reflection, questioning, and
critical thinking in the learning process.
• Knowledge is personal: Knowledge is based
on each individual's own perspective and
experiences. This means that learning should
be personalized to cater to different interests
and learning styles.
• Motivation is key to learning: Making
connections is essential for learning.
Constructivism theory suggests that learners
need to be motivated to engage in the learning
process in order to make meaningful
connections between ideas.
 Proponents of constructivism Theory

John Dewey (1859-1952)

• Referred to as the philosophical founder of constructivism.
• He believed that education should not be just about the
transmission of facts but rather a creative and active
process involving the student’s own experiences and
interactions with the world.
• Dewey emphasized that knowledge should not be
detached from its application.
• He argued that learning is most effective when rooted in
real-world experiences and challenges that resonate with
the learner.
• Dewey also saw education as a means to promote
democracy, advocating for a learning environment that
encourages critical thinking, problem-solving, and
active participation in society.
• In his opinion, teachers need to provide students with
experiences that are immediately valuable and can
enable them to contribute to society.
• To him, good education should have a purpose to
society as well as to the individual.
• Dewey’s theory is based on two principles – continuity
and interaction. Continuity means that a person’s
experience has influence on their future
• Interaction means a person’s past experiences
contribute to the present experience they are in.
 Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

• Lev Vygotsky was a prominent social constructivist

theorist.
• In his theory, he proposed that social interaction within
the learning process and the influence of culture on
developing cognitive ability are paramount.
• Social interaction is essential for successful learning, as
it provides learners with opportunities to discuss and
debate ideas with others.
• He emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by
the construction of knowledge through social
negotiation
• In Vygotsky’s theory, learning takes place at specific
level of social interaction.
• He called this, the zone of proximal
development (ZPD).
• The ZPD is where the learner, with the help of
adults or other peers who are more advanced
(the more knowledgeable other, MKO) is aided
in understanding concepts and ideas that they
would not be able to on their own.
• He also introduced the idea of scaffolding,
where a teacher or more knowledgeable peer
provides structured support to help the learner
achieve tasks within their ZPD.
• Vygotsky believed in the importance of
providing support to students as they learn
 Application to learning
• Constructivist learning theory emphasizes that learners actively construct
their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and
interactions. In the classroom, this theory can be applied in several ways:
• Active Learning: Students engage in hands-on, inquiry-based activities
that require problem-solving, experimentation, and exploration. For
example, in science lessons, students can conduct experiments and draw
conclusions based on their findings.
• Collaborative Learning: Group work encourages students to share their
ideas, discuss different perspectives, and work together to solve
problems. This can be done through peer teaching, project-based
learning, or discussions that promote critical thinking.
• Real-World Connections: Lessons are designed to connect learning to
real-life situations. For instance, math problems can be framed around
real-world scenarios like budgeting or building a house, helping students
see the relevance of their learning.
 Cont..
• Teacher as Facilitator: Instead of being the sole source of knowledge, the
teacher guides and supports students in their learning journey. The teacher
asks open-ended questions, provides resources, and fosters an environment
where students take ownership of their learning.
• Differentiated Instruction: Recognizing that each student brings unique
experiences and prior knowledge to the classroom, teachers offer a range
of activities that cater to different learning styles and abilities. This could
include visual aids, hands-on tasks, or interactive technology tools.
• Reflection and Metacognition: Students are encouraged to reflect on their
learning process, think about how they arrived at conclusions, and identify
areas for improvement. This can be done through journaling, self-
assessment, or group reflection sessions.
• Scaffolding: Teachers provide support at the start of a new concept and
gradually reduce it as students become more confident. For example,
teachers might model a task first, then provide guidance, and eventually
allow students to work independently.
 Benefits of Constructivism Approach to
Learning

• Students learn more, and enjoy learning more when

they are actively involved, rather than passive
listeners.
• Education works best when learners concentrate on
thinking and understanding, rather than on rote
memorization. Constructivism promotes critical
thinking and understanding, and improved problem-
solving skills..
• Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist
classrooms, students create organizing principles that
they can take with them to other learning settings.
• Constructivism gives students ownership of what they
learn, since learning is based on students' questions and
explorations.
• It makes the students to have a hand in designing the
assessments. Constructivist assessment engages the
students' initiatives and personal investments in their
journals, research reports, physical models, and artistic
representations which help them develop abilities to
express knowledge through a variety of ways.
• The students are also more likely to retain and transfer
the new knowledge to real life.
• It stimulates students’ engagements. Students in
constructivist classrooms learn to question things and
to apply their natural curiosity to the world.
• It promotes social and communication skills by
creating a classroom environment that
emphasizes articulation of ideas, sharing in
group projects and effective collaboration.
Students also learn to negotiate with others and
to evaluate their contributions in a socially
acceptable manner.
d. Connectivism Learning Theory
 Connectivism Learning Theory
• “Knowledge has many authors, knowledge has many facets,
it looks different to each person, and it changes moment to
moment. A piece of knowledge isn’t a description of
something, it is a way of relating to something.” – Stephen
Downes
• Connectivism was first introduced in 2005 by two theorists,
George Siemens and Stephen Downes. Connectivism is a
relatively modern learning theory introduced by George
Siemens and Stephen Downes that emphasizes the role of
technology and social networks in the learning process.
• Unlike traditional theories like behaviorism, cognitivism, or
constructivism, connectivism focuses on how learners connect
with information, people, and resources in a rapidly changing,
digital world.
• Connectivism theory that suggests students should
combine thoughts, theories, and general information in
a useful manner.
• It accepts that technology is a major part of the learning
process and that our constant connectedness gives us
opportunities to make choices about our learning.
• It also promotes group collaboration and discussion,
allowing for different viewpoints and perspectives when
it comes to decision-making, problem-solving, and
making sense of information.
• Connectivism promotes learning that happens outside of
an individual, such as through social media, online
networks, blogs, or information databases.
 Nodes and Links in Connectivism
• According to connectivism, learning is more than our own
internal construction of knowledge. Rather, what we can reach in
our external networks is also considered to be learning. From this
theory, two terms—nodes and links—have been commonly used
to describe how we gain and connect information in a network.
• In connectivism, students are seen as “nodes” in a network. A
node refers to any object that can be connected to another
object, like a book, webpage, person, etc.
• Connectivism is based on the theory that we learn when we
make connections, or “links,” between various "nodes" of
information, and we continue to make and maintain connections
to form knowledge.
 Key Principles of Connectivism

• Learning as a Network: Knowledge exists in a network

of connections, and learning involves navigating and
growing these networks.
• Diversity of Opinions: Different perspectives and
sources contribute to robust learning.
• Non-Human Learning Agents: Technology, tools, and
databases play an active role in learning, not just
humans.
• Currency and Relevance: Learning is a continual process
where staying up-to-date with new information is vital.
• Decision-Making as Learning: Deciding what to learn
and which information is meaningful is a critical skill.
 Classroom Applications of Connectivism

• Integrating connectivism into a classroom involves using

technology and fostering a collaborative environment. Here
are some practical applications:
• Utilizing Digital Tools:
– Encourage students to use online platforms (e.g., Google Scholar,
YouTube, or Khan Academy) to find and evaluate information.
– Integrate tools like discussion forums, blogs, or wikis to allow
students to share and build knowledge collaboratively.
• Promoting Collaboration:
– Create group projects where students work together to solve
problems using shared digital resources.
– Foster participation in online communities or virtual learning
networks related to the subject matter.
 Cont…
• Teaching Digital Literacy:
– Help students learn to evaluate the reliability and relevance of online sources.
– Teach ethical use of information and the importance of digital etiquette.
• Encouraging Lifelong Learning:
– Guide students to subscribe to blogs, follow experts on social media, or join
professional communities in their field of interest.
– Encourage the use of MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) to explore new
topics.
• Flipped Classroom:
– Assign online videos, podcasts, or articles for students to review at home, and
use class time for discussion, projects, and problem-solving.
• Gamification and Simulations:
– Use online simulations, games, or tools like Minecraft Education or coding
platforms to teach concepts interactively.
• Connecting with Global Perspectives:
– Use platforms like Zoom or PenPal Schools to connect with students or experts
worldwide for cultural exchanges or collaborative projects.
 Example Scenario

• Imagine a history teacher designing a connectivist lesson

on the Industrial Revolution:
• Students begin by researching the topic online, using
curated sources and digital archives.
• They then collaborate in small groups to create a shared
presentation using tools like Google Slides or Padlet.
• The teacher facilitates discussions where students debate
the societal impacts of industrialization, referencing
expert opinions found on forums or social media.
• To enhance relevance, students interact with an expert
historian through a live virtual Q&A session.
 Pros of Connectivism
• Both the student and the educator can benefit from connectivism in the
classroom. If you’re considering adopting this theory in your classroom,
consider the following benefits
• It creates collaboration.
Within connectivism, learning occurs when peers are connected and share
opinions, viewpoints, and ideas through a collaborative process.
Connectivism allows a community of people to legitimize what they’re
doing, so knowledge can be spread more quickly through multiple
communities.
• It empowers students and teachers.
Connectivism shifts the learning responsibilities from the teacher to the
student. It’s up to the learner to create their own learning experience. The
role of the educator then becomes to “create learning ecologies, shape
communities, and release learners into the environment” (Siemens, 2003).
• It embraces diversity.
Connectivism supports individual perspectives and the diversity of
opinions, theoretically providing for no hierarchy in the value of knowledge.
 Test understanding
• Define the term learning and explain why it is mandatory to human beings
• Identify and discuss different categories of learning theories
• Discuss the relevance of Behaviorist theory of learning in circumstances
where learners are undisciplined and have lost interest in learning
• Write short notes on insightful learning Concept learning and problem solving
• Give 4 relevance of insightful learning.
• Examine the information processing system and how a teacher can use it to
enhance performance in his subject.
• Show the place of constructivist theory of learning in CBC
• Discuss strategies that students can use to enhance memory
• Explain how connectivism is the new paradigm in the education practise.
• Show areas of convergency and divergency between
• i) classical conditioning and operant conditioning
• Ii) constructivism and cognitivism
• Iii) connectivism and social cognitive learning