ME-101:Basics of Mechanical Engineering

Unit-06
Stress and Strain

Dr. Deepak Sharma

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, H.P., India
Email: [email protected] 1
 Topics to be covered in Unit-06
• Fundamentals of Stress and Strain,
• Poisson Ratio,
• Elastic Constants,
• Thermal Strain and Stress,
• Bending of Beams, Bending Equation,
• Torsion equation, Torsion of Springs & Shafts.

Also, follow the blackboard discussion on numerical problems.

Practice numerical problems related to stress-strain, deformation, thermal stresses, bending of beams and
torsion of solid & hollow shafts and Springs.

References:
Strength of Materials: S S Bhavikatti
Any textbook on the Basics of Mechanical Engineering
2
 Stress and Strain
 There are certain behaviours of all materials under the influence of an external force (load).
 Stress and strain are one of the measures to show these behaviours.
 Stress is a resistive force per unit area, which is developed internally to oppose the external force subjected to
the material.
 The strain is a measure of the deformation of the material per unit dimensions.
 Direct Stress: If the stress developed in the material is perpendicular to the cross-section, it is known as direct
stress.
 Shear Stress: If the stress is tangential or parallel to the cross-section, it is known as shear stress.

Resistive force
Applied
(induced)
force/load

R R

Direct stress (normal to resisting area)

Shear stress (parallel to the resisting area)

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 Normal and Shear Stress
Normal force
Resisting σ
area
τ
Shear
force

Normal Stress = σ =

When the intensity of force is uniform across the cross-section:

P P Normal Stress = σ

The units of direct stress are the units of force divided by area, i.e., N/m 2, also known as Pascal (Pa).
4
 Tensile and compressive stresses

Resisting force (R)

R = ∫ σ dA = σ ∫ dA = σ A
σ
Now, since the stresses are uniform, the resisting force (R)
R = ∫ σ dA = σ ∫ dA = σ A Where σ is the compressive stress, and A is the
σ cross-sectional area.
Considering the equilibrium of a cut piece of the bar,
P=R It causes a shortening of the bar. Such forces which are
Where σ is the tensile stress, and A is the cross-sectional area. causing shortening are known as compressive forces
Under this type of normal stress, the bar is being extended. Such and corresponding stresses as compressive stresses.
stress, which causes the extension of the bar, is called tensile stress.
5
 Strain
 When changes in longitudinal direction are
taking place, changes in lateral direction also
take place.
 The nature of these changes in the lateral
direction is exactly opposite to that of
changes in the longitudinal direction, i.e., if
the extension is taking place in the
longitudinal direction, the shortening of lateral
Cross-section dimension takes place, and if shortening is
taking place in longitudinal direction
When direct stress is applied to a body, it will cause the body extension takes place in lateral directions.
to change its dimensions.  The lateral strain may be defined as
Lateral strain =
changes in the lateral dimension per unit
Direct strain, denoted by the symbol (epsilon ε or e ), is a lateral dimension.
measure of this change and is defined as the ratio of the Lateral strain =
change in length to the original length.
The change in length in the direction of applied load per unit
length is known as linear/longitudinal strain. Linear/longitudinal strain is in the direction of applied
force, and lateral strain is in the direction normal to the
ε= applied force.

Because strain is a ratio of lengths, it has no units. 6

 Poisson’s Ratio
• When a material undergoes changes in length, it undergoes changes of opposite nature in lateral directions.
• For example, if a bar is subjected to direct tension in its axial direction, it elongates and at the same time, its sides
contract.
L
D
Tensile
force d
b' b

Within the elastic limit, there is a constant ratio between lateral strain and
linear strain. This constant ratio is called Poisson’s ratio (µ).

Poisson’s ratio

µ=-
For most metals, its value is between 0.25 to 0.33
7
 Stress-strain relationship
The stress-strain relation of any material is obtained by conducting tension tests in the laboratories on standard
specimens. Different materials behave differently, and their behaviour in tension and compression differ slightly.

Tension test specimen and tension Stress-strain diagram of a ductile material (Mild Steel)
test specimen after breaking
8
 Salient points observed on the stress-strain curve
(a) Limit of Proportionality (A): It is the limiting value of the stress up to which
stress is proportional to strain.
(b) Elastic Limit: This is the limiting value of stress up to which if the material is
stressed and then released (unloaded), strain disappears completely, and the original
length is regained. This point is slightly beyond the limit of proportionality.
(c) Upper Yield Point (B): This is the stress at which the load starts reducing and the
extension increases. This phenomenon is called the yielding of material. At this stage,
strain is about 0.125 per cent, and stress is about 250 N/mm 2.
(d) Lower Yield Point (C): At this stage, the stress remains the same, but strain
increases for some time.
(e) Ultimate Stress (D): This is the maximum stress the material can resist. At this
stage, the cross-sectional area at a particular section starts reducing very fast. This is
called neck formation. After this stage, the load is resisted, and hence, the stress
developed starts reducing.
(f) Breaking Point (E): The stress at which the specimen fails is called breaking
9
point.
Stress-strain relation in aluminium and high-strength steel
The stress p at which if unloading is made, there In brittle materials, there is no appreciable change in the
will be a 0.2 per cent permanent set known as 0.2 rate of strain. There is no yield point, and no necking
per cent proof stress, and this point is treated as a takes place. The ultimate point and breaking point are one
yield point for all practical purposes and the same. The strain at failure is very small.

Stress-strain relation in Aluminium and Stress-strain relation for brittle material

high-strength steel 10
 Nominal/Engineering stress vs True stress
 The direct stress is based on the value obtained by
dividing the load by the original cross-sectional area.
That is the reason why the value of stress starts dropping
after the neck is formed in mild steel (or any ductile
material).
 But actually, as the material is stressed, its
cross-sectional area changes. We should
divide the load by the actual cross-sectional
area to get true stress in the material.

Nominal/Engineering Stress

True Stress

11
Engineering strain vs True strain
Engineering Strain=

True Strain
𝐿0

Instantaneous/ ∆𝐿
current length
(not original
length) 𝐿𝑓
=
𝐿 𝑓 =𝐿0 +∆ 𝐿

∆𝐿
ε 𝐸=
𝐿0

ε 𝑇 =⁡𝑙𝑛 (1+ε 𝐸 ) True strain is also known as

Logarithmic strain 12
 Hooke’s Law
• Robert Hooke, an English mathematician, conducted several experiments and concluded that stress is proportional to
strain up to the elastic limit. This is called Hooke’s law.

• Thus, Hooke’s law is up to the elastic limit.

• However, present-day sophisticated experiments have shown that for mild steel, Hooke’s law holds good up to the
proportionality limit, which is very close to the elastic limit.

σ∝ε

σ is direct stress, and ε is linear strain

σ =E ε
σ
𝑬=
ε

E is the constant of proportionality of the material, known as the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after
the English scientist Thomas Young.
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 Extension/Shortening of a Bar

Direct stress: σ =

Linear strain: ε =
P: Intensity of normal load
Hooke’s law: σ =E ε L: Length of bar/object
A: cross-sectional area normal to the loads
=E E: Young’s Modulus

𝑷𝑳
Extension/Shortening (deformation) ∆= Important expression for solving numerical problems
𝑨𝑬 14
 Numerical Problems:1
A specimen of steel 20 mm diameter with a gauge length of 200 mm is tested for destruction. It has an extension
of 0.25 mm under a load of 80 kN, and the load at the elastic limit is 102 kN. The maximum load is 130 kN.
The total extension at the fracture is 56 mm, and the diameter at the neck is 15 mm. Find the following:
(i) The stress at elastic limit.
(ii) Young’s modulus.
(iii) Percentage elongation.
(iv) Percentage reduction in area.
(v) Ultimate tensile stress.

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Solution

16
 Numerical Problems: 2
A circular rod of diameter 16 mm and 500 mm long is subjected to a tensile force of 40 kN. The
modulus of elasticity for steel may be taken as 200 kN/mm2. Find stress, strain and elongation in the
bar due to the applied load.

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Solution

18
 Numerical Problems:3
The circular bar shown in Figure is tested in the universal testing machine. It is observed that at a
load of 40 kN, the total extension of the bar is 0.280 mm. Determine the Young’s modulus of the
material.

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Solution

20
 Numerical Problems:4

A square steel rod 20 mm × 20 mm in section is to carry an axial load (compressive) of 100 kN.
Calculate the shortening in a length of 50 mm. E = 2.14 × 108 kN/m2.

21
 Solution

• Area, A = 0.02 × 0.02 = 0.0004 m2

• Length, l = 50 mm or 0.05 m
• Load, P = 100 kN
• E = 2.14 × 108 kN/m2

22
 Numerical Problems:5
• A steel wire 2 m long and 3 mm in diameter is extended by 0.75 mm when a weight W is
suspended from the wire. If the same weight is suspended from a brass wire, 2.5 m long and 2 mm
in diameter, it is elongated by 4.64 mm.
Determine the modulus of elasticity of brass if that of steel be 2.0 × 10 5 N/mm2.

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Solution

24
 Numerical Problems:6
A hollow steel tube is to be used to carry an axial compressive load of 160 kN. The yield
stress for steel is 250 N/mm2. A factor of safety of 1.75 is to be used in the design.
The following three classes of tubes of external diameter 101.6 mm are available.
Class Thickness
Light 3.65 mm
Medium 4.05 mm
Heavy 4.85 mm
Which section do you recommend?

25
Solution

26
 Shear Stress
The Figure shows a bar subject to a direct shearing force, i.e., the force parallel to the cross-section of
the bar. Due to shear force, the element deforms, as shown in the Figure below.
A Shear stress: τ = =
𝑄 is the shear force, and A is the resisting area parallel to the applied load.

𝑄
Again, as with direct stress and strain, within the elastic limit, shear
stress and strain are related through the shear form of Hooke’s law, Shear strain ():
which is written as:

τ Thus, shear stress is proportional to shear strain, and the constant of

τ =G 𝐺= proportionality, G, is termed the Shear Modulus/Modulus of Rigidity.
ϒ
27
 Elastic constants
The deformation produced by the stress system or applied load on a body is determined by some factors,
which are constant within the elastic limit and are known as Elastic Constants.

Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rigidity and Bulk Modulus are the three elastic constants.

1. Modulus of Elasticity: The Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus) ‘E’ has already been defined as the
ratio of linear stress to linear strain within the elastic/proportional limit.

2. Modulus of Rigidity/Shear Modulus: It is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain within
the elastic limit and is usually denoted by the letter G.

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 Elastic constants
3. Bulk Modulus: When a body is subjected to identical stresses p or in three mutually perpendicular
directions, the body undergoes uniform changes in three directions without undergoing distortion of shape.
The ratio of change in volume to original volume has been defined as volumetric strain (εv).
y
The Bulk Modulus (K) is defined as:
εv=εx+ εy+ εz

Tensile stresses in three mutually Compressive stresses in three

perpendicular directions mutually perpendicular directions 29
 Thermal/Temperature stresses and thermal strain
• Every material expands when the temperature rises and contracts when the temperature falls.
• It is established experimentally the change in length Δ is directly proportional to the length of the member L and
the change in temperature T.
Δ ∝ LT= αLT

Thermal/temperature strain εT αT

The constant of proportionality α is called the coefficient of thermal expansion and is defined as the change in
the unit length of material due to a unit change in temperature.

Among these
materials, which
one will have the
highest and least
expansion when
the temperature
rises by a unit
degree Celsius?
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 Thermal stresses
If the expansion of the member is freely permitted, as shown in Figure, no temperature/thermal stresses are
induced in the material.

One end of the bar is free

to expand/contract

αLT

Free expansion permitted

Since the bar is free to expand when the temperature rises, no thermal stresses will be induced in the bar.

31
 Thermal stresses
If the free expansion is prevented fully or partially, the stresses are induced in the bar, by the support forces.

If free expansion is permitted, the bar would have expanded by

Δ = αLT
Material is constrained to
Since support is not permitting it, the support force P develops to keep it at its expand/contract
original position. The magnitude of this force is such that contraction is equal to
free expansion, i.e.,
Δ = αLT
αLT

αLT

Thermal stress () σ 𝒕 =α ∆ T E
αLT

It is compressive in nature in this case.

Compressive force

is the cross-sectional area of the bar

32
 Thermal stresses when support yields
If support yields by δ or is unable to prevent the expansion completely, as shown below.

If free expansion is permitted, the bar would have expanded by:

Material is constrained
Δ = αLT to expand/contract

Expansion prevented Δ = αLT- δ

αLT- δ

αLT- δ

Thermal stress () ) αLT

It is compressive in nature in this case.

is the cross-sectional area of the bar

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 Bending of Beams
 When a beam is loaded with external loads, all the sections of the beam will experience bending moments
and shear forces. The shear forces and bending moments at various sections of the beam can be evaluated.
 The major stresses induced due to bending are normal stresses of tension and compression.
 However, the state of stress within the beam includes shear stresses due to the shear force in addition to the
major normal stresses due to bending, although the former are generally of smaller order when compared to
the latter.

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 Simple Bending or Pure Bending

 A beam or a part of it is said to be in a state of

pure bending when it bends under the action of
uniform/constant bending moment without any
shear force.
 Alternatively, a portion of a beam is said to be in a
state of simple bending or pure bending when
the shear force over that portion is zero.

35
 Loading condition

Loaded beam

Longitudinal plane of symmetry

36
 Theory of Simple Bending
• The beam is imagined to be consisting of a number
of longitudinal fibres; one such fibre is shown in
colour.
• It is obvious that the fibres near the upper side of
the beam are compressed; hence, an element in the
upper part is under compression.
• The fibres at the bottom side of the beam get
stretched, and hence, the elements on the lower
side are subjected to tension.
• Somewhere in between, there will be a plane where
the fibres are subjected to neither tension nor
compression. Such a plane is termed a neutral
surface or neutral plane.
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 Bending Equation
Assumptions
(i) The material is homogeneous and isotropic.

(ii) Modulus of elasticity is the same in tension and

compression.

(iii) Stresses are within the elastic limit.

(iv) The plane section remains the plane even after

deformations.
(v) The beam is initially straight, and every layer of it
is free to expand or contract.
(vi) The radius of curvature of the bent beam is very
large compared to the depth of the beam.

38
(i) Relationship between bending Consider an elemental length AB of the beam, as shown in Fig (a).
stresses and radius of curvature: Let EF be the neutral layer and CD the bottom-most layer.
Neutral If GH is a layer at a distance y from neutral layer EF, initially AB =
axis EF = GH =CD.
Let after bending A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H take positions A’, B’, C’,
D’, E’, F’, G’ and H’, respectively, as shown in Fig. (b).
Let R be the radius of curvature and ϕ be the angle subtended by
C’A’ and D’B’ at the centre of the radius of curvature.

EF = E′F′, since EF is the neutral axis

Strain in GH =

𝐺 𝐻 =𝐸𝐹 =𝑅ϕ
=
Neutral
Strain in layer GH (1)
axis

Strain in layer GH is due to tensile stress (), which is given as (2)

E is the modulus of
elasticity
Equating Eqs. (1) and 39
(2):
 Relationship between bending
(3)
stresses and radius of curvature

(ii) Relationship between bending moment and radius of curvature

Consider an elemental area at a distance y from the neutral axis:
Stress on this element, from Eq. (3) is:

Force on this element is:

Moment of inertia: Moment of moment of

area about an axis or second moment of area Moment of resistance of this elemental force about the neutral axis:
about an axis. 𝐸𝑦 𝐸 2
The first moment of area = 𝑀 ′= δ 𝑎× 𝑦 = δ 𝑎× 𝑦
𝑅 𝑅
The second moment of area = Moment of
inertia = Total moment resisted by the section is given by:
𝐸 2 𝐸
𝑀 =∑ δ 𝑎× 𝑦 = ∑ δ 𝑎× 𝑦
′′ 2
𝑅 𝑅
is the Moment of Inertia () (second moment of area) about centroidal axis.
40
 ′′ 𝐸
𝑀 = 𝐼
𝑅
From equilibrium condition, where is applied moment.

𝐸
𝑀= 𝐼
𝑅

𝑀 𝐸
= (4)
𝐼 𝑅
= Bending moment at the section
= Moment of inertia about the centroid axis
(3) Equating Eqs. (3) = Bending stress
and (4): = Distance of the fibre from the neutral axis
σ 𝑀 𝐸 = Modulus of elasticity and
= = (5) = Radius of curvature of bent section
𝑦 𝐼 𝑅

Eq. (5) is known as the bending equation

41
 𝑫
𝝅 𝟒
𝑰= 𝑫
𝟔𝟒 h

b
y Moment of Inertia of a Triangle
about its Base
h x 𝟑
𝟑 x 𝑰 𝒙=
𝒃𝒉
MOI about centroid𝑰 = 𝒃 𝒉 y 𝟏𝟐
𝒙
axis parallel to x-axis: 𝟏𝟐
b
𝟑
MOI about centroid 𝒉𝒃
𝑰 𝒚=
axis parallel to y-axis: 𝟏𝟐

42
 Numerical Problem: 1
A 250 mm (depth) × 150 mm (width) rectangular beam is subjected to a maximum bending moment of 750
kN-m. Determine:
(i) The maximum stress in the beam.
(ii) If the value of E for the beam material is 200 GN/m2, find out the radius of curvature for that portion
of the beam where the bending is maximum.
(iii) The value of the longitudinal stress at a distance of 65 mm from the top surface of the beam.

43
Solution

44
 Numerical Problem: 2

A hollow circular bar having an outside diameter twice the inside diameter is used as a beam. From
the bending moment diagram of the beam, it is found that the bar is subjected to a bending moment
of 40 kN-m. If the allowable bending stress in the beam is to be limited to 100MN/m 2, find the inside
diameter of the bar.

45
Solution

46
 Torsion of Shafts
• To transmit energy by rotation, a turning force must be applied.

• In the case of a shaft, if the force is applied tangentially and in the plane of transverse
cross-section, the torque or twisting moment may be calculated by multiplying the force
with the radius of the shaft.

• If the shaft is subjected to two opposite turning moments, it is said to be in pure torsion,
and it will exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross-section which is
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.

A member is said to be in torsion when it is subjected to a moment about its axis, as shown in the figure. The effect
of a torsional member is to twist it; hence, a torsional moment is also called a twisting moment.

Twisting of a structural member, when it is loaded by couples that produce rotation about its longitudinal axis 47
 Torsion Equation
1. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.
2. The shaft circular in the section remains circular after loading.
3. A plane section of the shaft normal to its axis before loading remains plane after the torques have been
applied.
4. The twist along the length of the shaft is uniform throughout.
5. The distance between any two normal cross-sections remains the same after the application of torque.
6. Maximum shear stress induced in the shaft due to the application of torque does not exceed its elastic
limit
T =value.
Maximum twisting
T M’
torque, M M’
ϕ
D = Diameter of the Mθ
shaft=2R, D O
Ip = Polar moment of inertia, L

= Shear stress,
G = Modulus of rigidity
48
θ = The angle of twist
• Shown in Figure is a shaft fixed at one end and torque being applied at the other end. If a line LM is drawn on
the shaft, it will be distorted to LM' on the application of the torque. Thus, the cross-section will be twisted
through angle θ and surface by angle ϕ.
• Shear strain (ϕ)
• Also, shear strain (ϕ)

From the Figure: θ

(1)

Consider an elementary ring of thickness dx at a radius x and

let the shear stress at this radius be .

The turning force on the elementary ring=

Turning moment due to this turning force

49
 To get total turning moment integrating both sides, we get:
𝑫

Maximum torque transmitted by a

𝑫 HOLLOW shaft of outer diameter and
inner diameter

Strength of solid shaft or Maximum

torque transmitted by a SOLID
shaft of diameter :

50
 𝟐π 𝟒
𝑫
𝑇= 𝝉𝒔 𝑫
𝟑𝟐 𝑫
𝟒
π𝑫 𝑫 𝒅
𝑰𝒑=
2 𝝉𝒔 π 𝑫
( )
𝟒
𝑇= 𝟑𝟐
𝑫 𝟑𝟐
𝟒
Polar Moment of Inertia 𝝉 π (𝑫 ¿ ¿ 𝟒 − 𝒅 )
𝑇= 𝒔 𝑰𝒑 𝑰𝒑= ¿
of circular shaft 𝑹 𝟑𝟐

𝑇 𝝉𝒔 y
= (2)
𝑰𝒑 𝑹
h x
x
Equating Eqs. (1) and (2) y
b

for square section?

This is called the torsion equation
51
 Power Transmitted by a Shaft

• Consider a force F newtons acting tangentially on the shaft of radius R. If the shaft, due
to this turning moment (F× R) starts rotating at N RPM, then,

• Work supplied to the shaft/sec=

2 π 𝑅𝑁
𝑃= 𝐹 ×
60 𝑻=𝑭 ×𝑹
Work supplied to the 2 π 𝑁𝑇 is the mean/average
𝑃= torque in N-m.
shaft/sec=Power (Watt) 60

52
 Numerical Problem: 1

A solid steel shaft has to transmit 75 kW at 200 r.p.m. Taking allowable shear stress as 70 MN/m 2,
find a suitable diameter for the shaft if the maximum torque transmitted on each revolution exceeds
the mean by 30%.

53
Solution

54
 Numerical Problem: 2
A solid circular shaft transmits 75 kW power at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the shaft diameter if
the twist in the shaft is not to exceed 1° in 2 metres length of the shaft, and shear stress is
limited to 50 MN/m2. Take G or C = 100 GN/m2.
Calculate the diameter based on the allowable angle of twist and allowable shear stress in
the shaft.

55
Solution

56
 Numerical Problem: 3
A hollow shaft of diameter ratio 3/8 is required to transmit 600 kW at 110 RPM, the maximum
torque being 20 % greater than the mean. The shear stress is not to exceed 63 MN/m 2, and the twist
in a length of 3 m not to exceed 1.4 degrees.
Calculate the maximum external diameter satisfying these conditions.
Take: C or G = 84 GN/m2

57
Solution

58
 Torsion of Springs

Introduction
• A spring is defined as an elastic machine element that deflects under the load’s
action and returns to its original shape when the load is removed.
• Springs are used to exert forces or torques in a mechanism or primarily to store
the energy of impact loads.
• These flexible members often operate with high values for the ultimate stresses
and with varying loads.
Important Functions and Applications:
 Used to absorb shocks and vibration
 Used to store energy
 Used to measure force
 Used to apply force and control motion

Helical spring

59
 Torsion of Springs
Close-coiled helical spring with ‘Axial load
Figure shows a close-coiled helical spring loaded with an axial load W.
Let,
= Radius of the coil,
= Diameter of the wire of the coil,
= Deflection of the coil under the load W,
= Modulus of rigidity,
= Number of coils or turns,
= Angle of twist,
= Length of wire = ,
= Shear stress, and
= Polar moment of inertia .

60
 Shear stress ()

Torsion equation

𝑇𝑟
𝜏𝑠=
𝐼𝑝
𝑊𝑅𝑟
𝜏𝑠= 4
𝜋𝑑
32

𝟏𝟔 𝑾𝑹
𝝉𝒔= 𝟑
𝝅𝒅

Deflection ( )
From the figure:

61
 Stiffness of the spring
Stiffness () of the spring is the force required to produce unit deflection in the spring.

𝑾
𝒌=
𝜹
𝑊
𝑘= 3
64 𝑊 𝑅 𝑛
4
𝐺𝑑

𝟒
𝑮𝒅
𝒌= 𝟑
𝟔𝟒 𝑹 𝒏

Stiffness () of the spring is also known as the Spring Constant.

62
 Numerical Problem: 1

• A closely coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 500 N. Its mean coil diameter is to be 10 times
that of the wire diameter. Calculate these diameters if the maximum shear stress in the material of
the spring is to be 80 MN/m2

63
Solution

64
 Numerical Problem: 2

• A helical spring is made of 12 mm diameter steel wire wound on a 120 mm diameter mandrel. If
there are 10 active coils, what is the spring constant? Take: G or C = 82 GN/m 2. What force must
be applied to the spring to elongate it by 40 mm?

65
Solution

66
 Numerical Problem for Practice
• A close-coiled helical spring has a mean diameter of 75 mm and a spring constant of 80 kN/m. It
has 8 coils. What is the suitable diameter of the spring wire if the maximum shear stress is not to
exceed 250 MN/m2? The modulus of rigidity of the spring wire material is 80 GN/m 2. What is the
maximum axial load the spring can carry?

67
68