QUANTUM MECHANICS- Illusion or

Reality ?

Prof. D. M. Parshuramkar
Dept. of Physics
N. H. College, Bramhapuri
 1. Classical Mechanics

• Do the electrons in atoms and molecules obey

Newton’s classical laws of motion?

• We shall see that the answer to this question is “No”.

• This has led to the development of Quantum

Mechanics – we will contrast classical and quantum
mechanics.
1.1 Features of Classical Mechanics (CM)

1) CM predicts a precise trajectory for a particle.

velocity v

position r = (x,y,z)

• The exact position (r)and velocity (v) (and hence the

momentum p = mv) of a particle (mass = m) can be
known simultaneously at each point in time.

• Note: position (r),velocity (v) and momentum (p) are

vectors, having magnitude and direction  v = (vx,vy,vz).
2) Any type of motion (translation, vibration, rotation) can have any
value of energy associated with it
– i.e. there is a continuum of energy states.

3) Particles and waves are distinguishable phenomena, with different,

characteristic properties and behaviour.

Property Behaviour

mass momentum
Particles position  collisions
velocity

Waves wavelength  diffraction

frequency interference
1.2 Revision of Some Relevant Equations in CM

Total energy of particle:

E = Kinetic Energy (KE) + Potential Energy (PE)

T - depends on v V - depends on r

V depends on the system

e.g. positional, electrostatic PE
E = ½mv2 + V

 E = p2/2m + V (p = mv)

Note: strictly E, T, V (and r, v, p) are all defined at a particular

time (t) – E(t) etc..
• Consider a 1-dimensional system (straight line translational
motion of a particle under the influence of a potential acting
parallel to the direction of motion):

• Define: position r=x

velocity v = dx/dt
momentum p = mv = m(dx/dt)

PE V
force F = (dV/dx)

• Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

F = ma = m(dv/dt) = m(d2x/dt2)

acceleration
• Therefore, if we know the forces acting on a particle we can
solve a differential equation to determine it’s trajectory {x(t),p(t)}.
1.3 Example – The 1-Dimensional Harmonic Oscillator

x=0
F NB – assuming no friction or
k other forces act on the particle
m (except F).

• The particle experiences a restoring force (F) proportional to its

displacement (x) from its equilibrium position (x=0).

• Hooke’s Law F = kx

k is the stiffness of the spring (or stretching force constant of the

bond if considering molecular vibrations)
k
• Substituting F into Newton’s 2nd Law we get:

m(d2x/dt2) = kx a (second order)

differential equation
Solution:
k
position x(t) = Asin(t) ω m
of particle

1 k
frequency  = /2 =
m
(of oscillation) 2π

Note: Frequency depends only on characteristics of the

system (m,k) – not the amplitude (A)!
x time period  = 1/ 

+A

A
• Assuming that the potential energy V = 0 at x = 0, it can be
shown that the total energy of the harmonic oscillator is given
by:
E = ½kA2

• As the amplitude (A) can take any value, this means that the
energy (E) can also take any value – i.e. energy is continuous.

• At any time (t), the position {x(t)} and velocity {v(t)} can be
determined exactly – i.e. the particle trajectory can be specified
precisely.

• We shall see that these ideas of classical mechanics fail when

we go to the atomic regime (where E and m are very small) –
then we need to consider Quantum Mechanics.

• CM also fails when velocity is very large (as v  c), due to

relativistic effects.
1.4 Experimental Evidence for the Breakdown of Classical Mechanics

• By the early 20th century, there were a number of experimental

results and phenomena that could not be explained by classical
mechanics.

a) Black Body Radiation (Planck 1900)

“UV Catastrophe”
Classical Mechanics
Energy 2000 K (Rayleigh-Jeans)
Radiated

1750 K

1250 K
0 2000 4000 6000 l/nm
 Planck’s Quantum Theory
• Planck (1900) proposed that the light energy emitted by the
black body is quantized in units of h ( = frequency of light).

E = nh (n = 1, 2, 3, …)

• High frequency light only emitted if thermal energy kT  h.

• h – a quantum of energy.

• Planck’s constant h ~ 6.6261034 Js

• If h  0 we regain classical mechanics.

• Conclusions:
• Energy is quantized (not continuous).
• Energy can only change by well defined amounts.
Time period of a Simple pendulum

Gustav Kirchhoff 1859 : Dark

lines of Na seen in solar
spectrum are darkened further
by interposition of Na – flame in
the path of Sun’s ray . Ratio of
Emissive power to Absorptive
power is independent of the
nature of material which is
 Function of Freq. and Temp.

• String vibration

• Phase Space
b) Heat Capacities (Einstein, Debye 1905-06)

• Heat capacity – relates rise in energy of a material with its rise

in temperature:
CV = (dU/dT)V

• Classical physics  CV,m = 3R (for all T).

• Experiment  CV,m < 3R (CV as T).
• At low T, heat capacity of solids determined by
vibrations of solid.

• Einstein and Debye adopted Planck’s hypothesis.

• Conclusion: vibrational energy in solids is quantized:

– vibrational frequencies of solids can
only have certain values ()
– vibrational energy can only change
by integer multiples of h.
c) Photoelectric Effect (Einstein 1905)

hn Photoelectrons ejected with

kinetic energy:
e Peh o telec tro n s
-

Ek = hn - 

Metal surface
work function = F

• Ideas of Planck applied to electromagnetic radiation.

• No electrons are ejected (regardless of light intensity) unless n
exceeds a threshold value characteristic of the metal.
• Ek independent of light intensity but linearly dependent on n.
• Even if light intensity is low, electrons are ejected if n is above the
threshold. (Number of electrons ejected increases with light
intensity).

• Conclusion: Light consists of discrete packets (quanta) of

energy = photons (Lewis, 1922).
 d) Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy
• It was found that atoms and molecules absorb and emit light only at
specific discrete frequencies  spectral lines (not continuously!).
• e.g. Hydrogen atom emission spectrum (Balmer 1885)

n1 = 1  Lyman
n1 = 2  Balmer
n1 = 3  Paschen
n1 = 4  Brackett
n1 = 5  Pfund
ν 1  1 1 
ν   R H  2  2 
c λ n n 
 1 2 

• Empirical fit to spectral lines (Rydberg-Ritz): n1, n2 (> n1) = integers.

• Rydberg constant RH = 109,737.3 cm-1 (but can also be
expressed in energy or frequency units).
 Revision: Electromagnetic Radiation

A – Amplitude l – wavelength
n - frequency c=n xl or n = c / l

wavenumber n = n / c = 1 / l

c (velocity of light in vacuum) = 2.9979 x 10 8 m s-1.

 1.5 The Bohr Model of the Atom

• The H-atom emission spectrum was rationalized by Bohr

(1913):
– Energies of H atom are restricted to certain discrete values
(i.e. electron is restricted to well-defined circular orbits,
labelled by quantum number n).
– Energy (light) absorbed in discrete amounts (quanta =
photons), corresponding to differences between these
e restricted values:
n2 E = E2  E1 = h
E2 E2
n1 h
h
p+
E1 E1
Absorption Emission
• Conclusion: Spectroscopy provides direct evidence for quantization
of energies (electronic, vibrational, rotational etc.) of atoms and
Limitations of Bohr Model & Rydberg-Ritz Equation

• The model only works for hydrogen (and other one electron
ions) – ignores e-e repulsion.

• Does not explain fine structure of spectral lines.

• Note: The Bohr model (assuming circular electron orbits) is

fundamentally incorrect.
 2. Wave-Particle Duality

• Remember: Classically, particles and waves are

distinct:
– Particles – characterised by position, mass,
velocity.
– Waves – characterised by wavelength, frequency.

• By the 1920s, however, it was becoming apparent

that sometimes matter (classically particles) can
behave like waves and radiation (classically waves)
can behave like particles.
2.1 Waves Behaving as Particles

a) The Photoelectric Effect

Electromagnetic radiation of frequency  can be thought
of as being made up of particles (photons), each with
energy E = h .

This is the basis of Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES).

b) Spectroscopy
Discrete spectral lines of atoms and molecules
correspond to the absorption or emission of a photon of
energy h , causing the atom/molecule to change
between energy levels: E = h .

Many different types of spectroscopy are possible.

c) The Compton Effect (1923)

• Experiment: A monochromatic beam of X-rays (i) = incident on

a graphite block.

• Observation: Some of the X-rays passing through the block are

found to have longer wavelengths (s).

Intensity
s
i 

i s
• Explanation: The scattered X-rays undergo elastic collisions with
electrons in the graphite.
– Momentum (and energy) transferred from X-rays to electrons.

• Conclusion: Light (electromagnetic radiation) possesses

momentum.

• Momentum of photon p = h/

p=h/s
• Energy of photon E = h = hc/  s
i

• Applying the laws of conservation
of energy and momentum we get: e
p=mev
 h 
Δλ λ s  λ i    1  cos 

 m e c 
 2.2 Particles Behaving as Waves

Electron Diffraction (Davisson and Germer, 1925)

Davisson and Germer showed that

a beam of electrons could be diffracted
from the surface of a nickel crystal.

Diffraction is a wave property – arises

due to interference between scattered
waves.

This forms the basis of electron

diffraction – an analytical technique for
determining the structures of molecules,
solids and surfaces (e.g. LEED).

NB: Other “particles” (e.g. neutrons,

protons, He atoms) can also be
diffracted by crystals.
2.3 The De Broglie Relationship (1924)

• In 1924 (i.e. one year before Davisson and Germer’s

experiment), De Broglie predicted that all matter has wave-like
properties.

• A particle, of mass m, travelling at velocity v, has linear

momentum p = mv.

• By analogy with photons, the associated wavelength of the

particle () is given by:
h h
λ 
p mv
 3. Wavefunctions
• A particle trajectory is a classical concept.
• In Quantum Mechanics, a “particle” (e.g. an electron) does not
follow a definite trajectory {r(t),p(t)}, but rather it is best described
as being distributed through space like a wave.

3.1 Definitions
• Wavefunction () – a wave representing the spatial distribution of a
“particle”.
• e.g. electrons in an atom are described by a wavefunction centred
on the nucleus.
•  is a function of the coordinates defining the position of the
classical particle:
– 1-D (x)
– 3-D (x,y,z) = (r) = (r,,) (e.g. atoms)
•  may be time dependent – e.g. (x,y,z,t)
The Importance of 
•  completely defines the system (e.g. electron in an atom or
molecule).
• If  is known, we can determine any observable property (e.g.
energy, vibrational frequencies, …) of the system.
• QM provides the tools to determine  computationally, to
interpret  and to use  to determine properties of the system.
3.2 Interpretation of the Wavefunction
• In QM, a “particle” is distributed in space like a wave.
• We cannot define a position for the particle.
• Instead we define a probability of finding the particle at any point
in space.

The Born Interpretation (1926)

“The square of the wavefunction at any point in space is

proportional to the probability of finding the particle
at that point.”

• Note: the wavefunction () itself has no physical meaning.

1-D System
• If the wavefunction at point x is (x), the probability of finding
the particle in the infinitesimally small region (dx) between x and
x+dx is:

P(x)  (x)2 dx

probability density

• (x) – the magnitude of  at point x.

Why write 2 instead of 2 ?

• Because  may be imaginary or complex  2 would be
negative or complex.
• BUT: probability must be real and positive (0  P  1).
• For the general case, where  is complex ( = a + ib) then:
2 = * where * is the complex conjugate of
.
i 1
(* = a – ib) (NB )
3-D System
• If the wavefunction at r = (x,y,z) is (r), the probability of finding
the particle in the infinitesimal volume element d (= dxdydz) is:

P(r)  (r)2 d

• If (r) is the wavefunction describing

the spatial distribution of an electron
in an atom or molecule, then:

(r)2 = (r) – the electron density at point r

3.3 Normalization of the Wavefunction

• As mentioned above, probability: P(r)  (r)2 d

• What is the proportionality constant?
• If  is such that the sum of (r)2 at all points in space = 1, then:
P(x) = (x)2 dx 1-D
P(r) = (r)2 d 3-D

• As summing over an infinite number of infinitesimal steps = integration,

this means:
 2
Ptotal 1D   ψx  dx 1


 2    2
Ptotal 3D   ψr  dτ    ψx, y, z  dxdydz 1
 

• i.e. the probability that the particle is somewhere in space = 1.

• In this case,  is said to be a normalized wavefunction.

How to Normalize the Wavefunction
2
• If  is not normalized, then:
ψr  dτ A 1

• A corresponding normalized wavefunction (Norm) can be

defined:
1
ψ Norm r   ψr 
A

2
such that:
ψ Norm r  dτ 1

• The factor (1/A) is known as the normalization constant

(sometimes represented by N).
3.4 Quantization of the Wavefunction

The Born interpretation of  places restrictions

on the form of the wavefunction:

(a)  must be continuous (no breaks);

(b) The gradient of  (d/dx) must be

continuous (no kinks);

(c)  must have a single value at any point in

space;

(d)  must be finite everywhere;

(e)  cannot be zero everywhere.

• Other restrictions (boundary conditions) depend on the exact system.

• These restrictions on  mean that only certain wavefunctions and  only
certain energies of the system are allowed.

 Quantization of   Quantization of E
3.5 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

“It is impossible to specify simultaneously, with precision, both the momentum

and the position of a particle*”

(*if it is described by Quantum Mechanics)

Heisenberg (1927)

Dpx.Dx  h / 4p (or /2, where  = h/2p).

Dx – uncertainty in position
Dpx – uncertainty in momentum (in the x-direction)

• If we know the position (x) exactly, we know nothing about momentum (px).
• If we know the momentum (px) exactly, we know nothing about position (x).
• i.e. there is no concept of a particle trajectory {x(t),px(t)} in QM (which applies to
small particles).
• NB – for macroscopic objects, Dx and Dpx can be very small when compared
with x and px  so one can define a trajectory.
• Much of classical mechanics can be understood in the limit h  0.
How to Understand the Uncertainty Principle

• To localize a wavefunction () in space (i.e. to specify the

particle’s position accurately, small Dx) many waves of
different wavelengths () must be superimposed  large Dpx
(p = h/).
2 ~ 1

• The Uncertainty Principle imposes a fundamental (not

experimental) limitation on how precisely we can know (or
determine) various observables.
• Note – to determine a particle’s position accurately requires use
of short radiation (high momentum) radiation. Photons colliding
with the particle causes a change of momentum (Compton
effect)  uncertainty in p.
 The observer perturbs the system.

• Zero-Point Energy (vibrational energy Evib  0, even at T = 0 K)

is also a consequence of the Uncertainty Principle:
– If vibration ceases at T = 0, then position and momentum
both = 0 (violating the UP).

• Note: There is no restriction on the precision in simultaneously

knowing/measuring the position along a given direction (x) and
the momentum along another, perpendicular direction (z):
• Dpz.Dx = 0
• Similar uncertainty relationships apply to other pairs of
observables.

• e.g. the energy (E) and lifetime () of a state:

DE.D  

(a) This leads to “lifetime broadening” of spectral lines:

– Short-lived excited states ( well defined, small D) possess
large uncertainty in the energy (large DE) of the state.
Þ Broad peaks in the spectrum.

(b) Shorter laser pulses (e.g. femtosecond, attosecond lasers) have

broader energy (therefore wavelength) band widths.
(1 fs = 1015 s, 1 as = 1018 s)
 4. Wave Mechanics
• Recall – the wavefunction () contains all the information we need to
know about any particular system.
• How do we determine  and use it to deduce properties of the
system?

4.1 Operators and Observables

• If  is the wavefunction representing a system, we can write:

Q̂ψ Qψ

where Q – “observable” property of system (e.g. energy,

momentum, dipole moment …)
Q̂ – operator corresponding to observable Q.
• This is an eigenvalue equation and can be rewritten as:

Q̂ψ  Q ψ
operator Q acting on function  multiplied
function  by a number Q
(eigenfunction) (eigenvalue)

(Note:  can’t be cancelled).

Examples: d/dx (eax) = a eax

d2/dx2 (sin ax) = a2 sin ax

To find  and calculate the properties (observables) of a system:

1. Construct relevant operator Q̂

2. Set up equation Q̂ψ Qψ
3. Solve equation  allowed values of  and Q.

Quantum Mechanical Position and Momentum Operators

1. Operator for position in the x-direction is just multiplication by x

x̂ψ xψ

2. Operator for linear momentum in the x-direction:   d

ˆ x  
p

 i  dx
p̂ x ψ p x ψ dψ
 p x ψ
i dx
(solve first order differential equation   , px).
Constructing Kinetic and Potential Energy QM Operators
1. Write down classical expression in terms of position and momentum.
2. Introduce QM operators for position and momentum.

Examples
1. Kinetic Energy Operator in 1-D T̂x
2 2 2 
p ˆ  ˆ
p  d 2 
CM
Tx  x  QMT x
  
2m  dx 2 
x
2m 2m 
2. KE Operator in 3-D
T̂
CM QM “del-squared”

2 2  2 2 2  2
p2 px2  py2  pz2 ˆ  ˆ
p        
T  T   2  2 2
2m 
2m  x 2
y z  2m
2m 2m 

partial derivatives
operate on (x,y,z)
3. Potential Energy Operator (a function of position)
 PE operator correspondsV̂
to multiplication by V(x), V(x,y,z) etc.
4.2 The Schrödinger Equation (1926)

• The central equation in Quantum Mechanics.

• Observable = total energy of system.

Schrödinger Equation Ĥψ Eψ Ĥ Hamiltonian

Operator

ˆ T
ˆ V
ˆ E Total Energy
where
H and E = T + V.

• SE can be set up for any physical system.

• The form of
Ĥ
depends on the system.
• Solve SE   and corresponding E.
Examples

1. Particle Moving in 1-D (x)

ˆ ψ T
ˆ ψV
ˆ ψ Eψ  2   2 ψ 
H   Vx ψ Eψ

2m  x  2 

• The form of V(x) depends on the physical situation:

– Free particle V(x) = 0 for all x.
– Harmonic oscillator V(x) = ½kx2

2. Particle Moving in 3-D (x,y,z)

• SE   2   2 ψ  2 ψ  2 ψ 
  2  2  Vx, y, z ψ Eψ

2m  x 2
y z 

or 2 2
  ψ  Vx, y, z ψ Eψ Note: The SE is a second order
2m differential equation
4.3 Particle in a I-D Box

System
– Particle of mass m in 1-D box of length L.
– Position x = 0L.
– Particle cannot escape from box as PE V(x)=  for x = 0, L
(walls).
– PE inside box: V(x)= 0 for 0< x < L.

 

1-D Schrödinger Eqn.

 2   2 ψ  PE (V)
 Eψ

2m  x  2  (V = 0 inside box).

0
0 x L
  2   2 ψ 
 Eψ

2m  x  2 

• This is a second order differential equation – with general

solutions of the form:
 = A sin kx + B cos kx

 2ψ 
   k 2 A sin kx  B cos kx   k 2 ψ
 x 2 
 

2  2   2 
• SE     ψ     
   k 2 ψ Eψ
2m  x 2   2m 

 k 2 2 (i.e. E depends on k).

E
2m
Restrictions on 

• In principle Schrödinger Eqn. has an infinite number of solutions.

• So far we have general solutions:

– any value of {A, B, k}  any value of {,E}.

• BUT – due to the Born interpretation of , only certain values of 

are physically acceptable:
– outside box (x<0, x>L) V =   impossible for particle
to be outside the box
 2 = 0   = 0 outside box.
–  must be a continuous function
 Boundary Conditions  = 0 at x = 0
 = 0 at x = L.
Effect of Boundary Conditions

1. x = 0  = A sin kx + B cos kx = B
0 1
=0 B=0
  = A sin kx for all x

2. x = L  = A sin kL = 0

A=0 ?  sin kL = 0 ? 
(or  = 0 for all x)
sin kL = 0  kL = n n = 1, 2, 3, …
(n  0, or  = 0 for all x)
Allowed Wavefunctions and Energies

• k is restricted to a discrete set of values: k = n/L

• Allowed wavefunctions: n = A sin(nx/L)

• 2 nx 
Normalization: A = (2/L)  ψn  L
sin  
 L 

• Allowed energies: k 2 2 n 2 π 2 2
En  
2m 2mL2

 n 2h2
En 
8mL2
Quantum Numbers

• There is a discrete energy state (En),

corresponding to a discrete wavefunction
(n), for each integer value of n.

• Quantization – occurs due to boundary

conditions and requirement for  to be
physically reasonable (Born interpretation).

• n is a Quantum Number – labels each

allowed state (n) of the system and
determines its energy (En).

• Knowing n, we can calculate n and En.

Properties of the Wavefunction

• 2 nx 

Wavefunctions are standing waves: ψn  L
sin  
 L 
• The first 5 normalized wavefunctions for the particle in the 1-D
box:

• Successive functions possess one more half-wave ( they have a

shorter wavelength).

• Nodes in the wavefunction – points at which n = 0 (excluding the

ends which are constrained to be zero).

• Number of nodes = (n-1) 1  0; 2  1; 3  2 …

Curvature of the Wavefunction

• If y = f(x) dy/dx = gradient of y (with respect to x).

d2y/dx2 = curvature of y.

• In QM Kinetic Energy  curvature of   2ψ 

T   2  .....
 x 
 
• Higher curvature  (shorter )  higher KE

• For the particle in the 1-D box (V=0):

 2ψn  n2
KE E n Tn   
 x 2  L2
 
 n 2h2
Energies En 
8mL2

• En  n2/L2  En as n (more nodes in n)

En as L (shorter box)
n (or L)  curvature of n
 KE  En

E  E
2 node

L
1

L1 L2
• En  n2  energy levels get further apart as n
n E

9h 2
3 E3 
8mL2

4h 2
2 E2 
8mL2

h2
1 E1  2 h2
8mL ZPE 
0 8mL2
• Zero-Point Energy (ZPE) – lowest energy of particle in box:

h2
ZPE E min E 1 
8mL2
• CM Emin = 0
• QM E = 0 corresponds to  = 0 everywhere (forbidden).
• If V(x) = V  0, everywhere in box, all energies are shifted by V.

V=0 V0
E2=E2+V
n 2h2
En  2
V E2
8mL
E1=E1+V
V
E1
Density Distribution of the Particle in the 1-D Box

• The probability of finding the particle

between x and x+dx (in the state 
represented by n) is:
Pn(x) = n(x)2 dx = (n(x))2 dx (n is real)

2 nx  
 Pn x   L2 sin   dx 2
 L 
• Note: probability is not uniform
– n2 = 0 at walls (x = 0, L) for all n. 
2
– n2 = 0 at nodes (where n = 0).
4.4 Further Examples

(a) Particle in a 2-D Square or 3-D Cubic Box

• Similar to 1-D case, but   (x,y) or (x,y,z).
• Solutions are now defined by 2 or 3 quantum numbers
e.g. [n,m, En,m]; [n,m,l, En,m,l].
• Wavefunctions can be represented as contour plots in 2-D

(b) Harmonic Oscillator

• Similar to particle in 1-D box, but PE V(x) = ½kx2

(c) Electron in an Atom or Molecule

T̂ 3-D KE operator

V̂ PE due to electrostatic interactions between electron and all

other electrons and nuclei.
 A SUMMARY OF DUAL ITY OF NATURE
Wave particle duality of physical objects
LIGHT

Wave nature -EM wave Particle nature -photons

Optical microscope Convert light to electric current

Interference Photo-electric effect

PARTICLES

Wave nature Particle nature

Matter waves -electron
Electric current
microscope
photon-electron collisions
Discrete (Quantum) states of confined
systems, such as atoms. yudh 57
 QUNATUM MECHANICS:

ALL PHYSICAL OBJECTS exhibit both PARTICLE AND WAVE

LIKE PROPERTIES. THIS WAS THE STARTING POINT
OF QUANTUM MECHANICS DEVELOPED INDEPENDENTLY
BY WERNER HEISENBERG AND ERWIN SCHRODINGER.

Particle properties of waves: Einstein relation:

Energy of photon = h (frequency of wave).

Wave properties of particles: de Broglie relation:

wave length = h/(mass times velocity)
Physical object described by a mathematical function called
the wave function.
Experiments measure the Probability of observing the object.
Yodh 58
A localized wave or wave packet:
A moving particle in quantum theory

Spread in position Spread in momentum

Superposition of waves
of different wavelengths
to make a packet

Narrower the packet , more the spread in momentum

Basis of Uncertainty Principle
Yodh 59
 ILLUSTRATION OF MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRON
POSITION

Act of measurement
influences the electron
-gives it a kick and it
is no longer where it
was ! Essence of uncertainty
principle.
Yodh 60
Classical world is Deterministic:
Knowing the position and velocity of
all objects at a particular time
Future can be predicted using known laws of force
and Newton's laws of motion.
Quantum World is Probabilistic:
Impossible to know position and velocity
with certainty at a given time.

Only probability of future state can be predicted using

known laws of force and equations of quantum mechanics.
Tied together
Observer Observed

Yodh 61
BEFORE OBSERVATION IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO SAY
WHETHER AN OBJECT IS A WAVE OR A PARTICLE
OR WHETHER IT EXISTS AT ALL !!
QUANTUM MECHANICS IS A PROBABILISTIC THEORY OF NATURE

UNCERTAINTY RELATIONS OF HEISENBERG ALLOW YOU TO

GET AWAY WITH ANYTHING PROVIDED YOU DO IT FAST
ENOUGH !! example: Bank employee withdrawing cash, using it ,but
replacing it before he can be caught ...
CONFINED PHYSICAL SYSTEMS – AN ATOM – CAN ONLY
EXIST IN CERTAIN ALLOWED STATES ... .

THEY ARE QUANTIZED

Yodh 62
COMMON SENSE VIEW OF THE WORLD IS AN
APPROXIMATION OF THE UNDERLYING BASIC
QUANTUM DESCRIPTION OF OUR PHYSICAL
WORLD !
IN THE COPENHAGEN INTERPRETATION OF
BOHR AND HEISENBERG IT IS IMPOSSIBLE IN
PRINCIPLE FOR OUR WORLD TO BE
DETERMINISTIC !

EINSTEIN, A FOUNDER OF QM WAS

UNCOMFORTABLE WITH THIS
INTERPRETATION
God does not play dice !
Bohr and Einstein in discussion 1933
Yodh 63
 Einstein-Podosky-Rosen
(EPR)Paradox

.Quantum entanglement
.Double slit Exp.
:Quantum description of Nature
is incomplete.
What is QM trying to tell
us?
Bohr: In our description of Nature , the
purpose is not to disclose the real
essence of the phenomena but only to
track down , so far as it is possible,
relations between the manifold aspects
of our experience.
 19 th
century problem : What is
Electrodynamics trying to tell us?

Fields in empty space have

physical reality ; the medium
that supports them does not
20th century problem : What QM is
trying to tell us ?

Correlations have physical reality

; that which that correlate does
not.
Correlation between energy states is
the reality ; not the energy states.
Planck’s guiding spirit:

There are absolute laws

in Nature that must be
simple and logical.
 Concluding Remark:

QM has been an unqualified success

in quantitatively describing the
atomic and sub-atomic world, its
interpretative aspects have not
been satisfactory.
THANKS..