Module 5 - Principles of Gating and Risering

• Purpose of the gating system.

• Components of the gating System and its functions.

• Design of the gating system.

• Different types of gates. Gating ratio and its functions.

• Definition and functions of the riser. Types of risers and their application.

• Design of the riser - its shape. Size and location.

• Use of insulating material and exothermic compounds in risers.

GATING SYSTEM Principles of Gating and Risering

• The term gating system refers to group of elements through which the
molten metal passes while entering the mould cavity.

• The gating system is composed of (components of gating system)

 Pouring basin
 Sprue
 Runner
 Gates
 Risers
 Principles of Gating and Risering

Typical Gating and Risering System

 Principles of Gating and Risering
Functions of Gating System

• To fill the mould cavity completely before freezing

• To minimise turbulence
• To avoid erosion
• To remove inclusions
• To regulate flow of molten metal
• To consume least metal – less scrap (Casting yield)
• To establish directional solidification
 Principles of Gating and Risering

Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect free casting.
This can be achieved by considering following requirements.

• A gating system should avoid sudden (or) right angle changes in direction.
• A gating system should fill the mould cavity before freezing.
• The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence.
• A turbulence metal flow tends to form dross in the mould.
 Principles of Gating and Risering

• Unwanted materials such as slag, dross and other mould materials

should not be allowed to enter the mould cavity.

• The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly

controlled in such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air is
prevented. (Aspiration is sucking of the air because of a low
pressure zone created inside the mold)

• A proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that the

casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or distortions.
 Principles of Gating and Risering

• Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating

or mould erosion takes place.

• The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal

reaches the mould cavity.

• It should be economical and easy to implement and remove

after casting solidification.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
For proper functioning of the gating system, the following factors need to be
controlled.

• Type of pouring equipment, such as ladles, pouring basin etc.

• Temperature/ Fluidity of molten metal.

• Rate of liquid metal pouring.

• Type and size of sprue.

• Type and size of runner.

• Size, number and location of gates connecting runner and casting.

• Position of mould during pouring and solidification.

 Elements of Gating System

• Pouring cup
• Sprue
• Sprue well
• Runner
• Runner extension
• Ingates (Gates)
• Riser
 Principles of Gating and Risering

• A pouring basin makes it easier for the ladle or crucible operator to direct

the flow of metal from crucible to sprue.

• Helps maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow.

• Reduces turbulence at the sprue entrance.

• Helps separating dross, slag etc., from metal before it enters the sprue.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
If the pouring basins are made large,
• Dross and slag formation will tend to float
on the surface of the metal and may be
stopped from entering the sprue and
hence the mould.

• They may be filled quickly without

overflowing and may act as a reservoir of
liquid metal to compensate metal
Shapes of Pouring Basin
shrinkage or contraction.
Pouring Cup dimensions

Anti-swirl bar: To minimise turbulence

through vertex formation and minimise
erosion
 SPRUE Principles of Gating and Risering
• A sprue feeds metal to runner
which in turn reaches the casting
through gates.

• A sprue is tapered with its bigger

end at top to receive the liquid
metal. The smaller end is
connected to runner.
 Aspiration effect
Aspiration effect: entering of gases from baking of organic compounds present in the mould
into the molten metal stream. This will produce porous castings.
Pressure anywhere in the liquid stream should not become negative.

Free falling liquid Metal flow with aspiration effect

Case 1: straight Vs tapered sprue

Pressure anywhere in the liquid stream should not become

negative.
 Points 2 & 3
ρm = density of molten metal

Let in the limiting case, p2 = p3, then from above equation

We know that

Combining above two eqns.,

We know that between points 1 and 3, gh  v2 /

2
t 3

Put this in R2 eqn, we get, R 2

 Ideal and actual profiles of sprue

(a) (b)
Approximating tapered spure using choke mechanism
(a) Choke core, (b) Runner choke
In many high production casting systems, tapered
sprue will not be provided. Instead it is
compensated by having chokes at the end of sprue
or runner.
 Case 2: sudden change in flow direction

runner

d’/d = 1.3

A sharp change in flow direction is avoided by designing the mould to fit vena contracta.
Preventing impurities and turbulence in casting

The items provided in the gating system to avoid impurities and turbulence are:
Pouring basin:
This reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal poured from furnace.
This also maintains a constant pouring head. Experience shows that pouring basin
depth of 2.5 times the sprue entrance diameter is enough for smooth metal flow. Radius
of 25R (mm) is good for smooth entrance of sprue.
Delay screen/Strainer core:
A delay screen is a small piece of perforated screen placed on top of the sprue. This screen
actually melts because of the heat from the metal and this delays the entrance of metal
into the sprue, maintaining the pouring basin head. This also removes dross in the molten
metal.
Strainer core is a ceramic coated screen with many small holes and used for same purpose.
Splash core: provided at the end of the sprue length which reduces the eroding force of
the liquid metal.
Skim bob: this traps lighter and heavier impurities in the horizontal flow
Sprue well area is two to three times the area of sprue exit (choke)
GATES Principles of Gating and Risering

• A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould cavity and through
which molten metal flows to fill the mould cavity.
• A small gate is used for a casting which solidifies slowly and vice versa.
• A gate should not have sharp edges as they may break during pouring and sand
pieces thus may be carried with the molten metal in the mould cavity.

Types of Gate
• Top gate
• Bottom gate
• Parting line side gate
Top gate Principles of Gating and Risering

• A top gate is sometimes also called as Drop gate because the molten metal
just drops on the sand in the bottom of the mould.
• Generation of favourable temperature gradients to enable directional
solidification from the casting towards the gate which serves as a riser too.

Disadvantages

• The dropping liquid metal stream erodes the mould

surface.

• There is a lot of turbulence.

 Bottom gates Principles of Gating and Risering
• A bottom gate is made in the drag portion of
the mould.

• In a bottom gate the liquid metal fills rapidly the

bottom portion of the mould cavity and rises
steadily and gently up the mould walls.

• As comparison to top gate, bottom gate

involves little turbulence and sand erosion.

• Bottom gate produces good casting surfaces.

Disadvantages Principles of Gating and Risering

• In bottom gates, liquid metal enters the mould cavity at the bottom.

• If freezing takes place at the bottom, it could choke off the metal flow
before the mould is full.

• A bottom gate creates an unfavourable temperature gradient and makes

it difficult to achieve directional solidification.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
PARTING LINE SIDE GATE

• Middle or side or parting gating systems combine the characteristics of top and
bottom gating systems.

• In this technique gate is provided along the parting line such that some portion
of the mould cavity will be below the parting line and some portion will be
above the parting line.

• The cavity below the parting line will be filled by assuming top gating and the
cavity above the parting line will be filled by assuming bottom gating.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM
• To fill the mould cavity without breaking the flow of liquid metal
and without using very high pouring temperatures.
• To avoid erosion of mould cavity.
• To minimize turbulence and dross formation.
• To prevent aspiration of air or mould gases in the liquid metal
stream.
• To obtain favourable temperature gradients to promote
directional solidification.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Defects occurring due to improper design of gating system

• Oxidation of metal

• Cold shuts

• Mould erosion

• Shrinkages

• Porosity

• Misruns

• Penetration of liquid metal into mould walls.

 Principles of Gating and Risering

Reynold’s number (Re)

 Vd
Re  

density velocity
diameter
viscosity
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Critical Reynold’s number

• Re < 2,000
– viscosity dominated, laminar flow

• Re > 4,000
– inertia dominated, turbulent flow

• Controlled through gate and runner design

 Principles of Gating and Risering
Metal flow rate and velocity calculations

• Studies of gating system have been based upon two laws of fluid
dynamics.
• Law of continuity
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
• Q = volume rate of flow
• A = cross sectional area of flow passage
• V = linear velocity of flow
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Bernoulli’s Equation
• Used to calculate flow velocities
• Assumptions: steady state, incompressible, inviscid
Flow
P1/g + V12/ 2g + h1 = P2/g + V22/ 2g + h2

P = pressure
r= density
v = velocity
h = height above the datum plane
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Design criteria for pouring basin

• The pouring basin should be designed such that the proper uniform flow
system is rapidly established.
This can be achieved by-
• Use of strainer core
• Use of DAM to make steady flow
• Use of sprue plug
It should be easy and convenient to fill pouring basin.
Design of sprue Principles of Gating and Risering

• As the liquid metal passes

down the sprue it loses its
pressure head but gains
velocity.

To reduce turbulence and promote Laminar Flow, from the Pouring Basin, the
flow begins a near vertical incline that is acted upon by gravity and with an
accelerative gravity force.
 Principles of Gating and Risering

1 pouring basin
hc sprue
2
ht

1 = free surface of metal

2 = sprue top
3 3 = sprue bottom
• Assuming
– entire mould is at atmospheric pressure (no point below atmospheric)
– metal in the pouring basin is at zero velocity (reservoir assumption)
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Mass flow rate =  A V = constant
Applying continuity equation between point 2 and 3 we get-

A2 V3 2 ght ht
  
A3 V2 2 ghc hc
2
ht  A2 
 
hc  A3 

• Actual shape of sprue is Parabola

• But in order to avoid manufacturing difficulty we use tapered cylinder shape.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Tapered sprue reduces the rate of flow at which the liquid metal enters the mould
cavity and hence mould erosion is reduced.
The area at the sprue exit controls-
• Flow rate of liquid metal into mould cavity
• Velocity of liquid metal
• Pouring time

• Choke is that part of the gating system which has the smallest cross section
area.
• In a free gating system sprue serves as choke.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
• This reduces mould erosion and turbulence because velocity of liquid metal
is less.
• This system causes air aspiration effect.

In a choked system, gate serves as the choke.

• This creates a pressurized system.
• Due to high metal velocity and turbulence, this system experiences oxidation
and erosion in mould cavity.

• The area at the sprue exit which if is the least is known as choke area and can
be calculated from the following relation-
 Principles of Gating and Risering

W
CA 
c.dt 2 gH
CA is choke area
W is the weight of casting
C is nozzle coefficient
d is density of liquid metal
t is pouring time
H effective liquid metal head
Pouring time Principles of Gating and Risering

• High pouring rates leads to mould erosion, rough surface, excessive

shrinkages etc.

• Low pouring rate may not permit the complete filling of the mould cavity in
time if the molten metal freezes fast and thus defects like cold shuts may
develop.

• It is very necessary to know optimum pouring rate or pouring time for

metals to be cast. Optimum pouring rate a function of casting shape and
size.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
• Pouring time for brass or bronze
• Varies from 15 seconds to 45 seconds may be used for casting
weighing less than 150 kg.
• Pouring time for steel casting
• Steel has a high freezing range as compared to other cast alloys, it is
poured rapidly to avoid early freezing.
• Pouring time =
seconds

W is weight of casting in lbs

K is fluidity factor
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Pouring time of light metal alloys

Unlike steel, Al and Mg alloys are poured at a slow rate, this is

necessary to
• Avoid turbulence,
• Aspiration and
• Drossing.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
DESIGN OF RUNNER AND GATES

In a good runner and gate design-

• Abrupt changes in section and sharp corners which create

turbulence and gas entrapment should be avoided.

• A suitable relationship must exist between the cross-

sectional area of sprue, runner and in gates.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
GATING RATIO
• Gating ratio= a:b:c where,
• a= cross-sectional area of sprue
• b= cross-sectional area of runner
• c= total cross-sectional area of ingates.
• Gating ratio reveals-
• whether the total cross- section decreases towards the mould cavity.
• This provides a choke effect which pressurizes the liquid metal in the
system.
• Whether the total cross-sectional area increases so that the passages
remain incompletely filled. It is an unpressurized system.
S.N. Pressurized gating systems Unpressurized gating systems

1. Gating ratio may be of the order Gating ratio may be of the order of
of 3: 2: 1 1: 3: 2

2. Air aspiration effect is minimum Air aspiration effect is more

3. Volume flow of liquid from Volume flow of liquid from every
every ingate is almost equal. ingate is different.

4. They are smaller in volume for a They are larger in volume because
given flow rate of metal. they involve large runners and gates
Therefore the casting yield is as compared to pressurized system
higher. and thus the cast yield is reduced.

5. Velocity is high, severe Velocity is low and turbulence is

turbulence may occur at corners. reduced.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
• Ideally, in a system, pressure should be just enough to avoid
aspiration and keep to all feeding channels full of liquid metal.

Gating ratio and positions of ingates should be such that the

liquid metal fills the mould cavity just rapidly to-
• Avoid misruns and coldshuts in thin sectioned castings.
• Reduce turbulence and mould erosion in casting of thicker
casting.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
• The maximum liquid metal tends to flow through the farthest ingate.

• For a gating ratio 1:2:4, 66% of liquid metal enters through gate no. 2
and only 34% does so through gate no. 1.

• Total ingate area is reduced by making gates farthest from sprue of

smaller cross-section so that less volume of metal flows through them
and makes a uniform distribution of metal at all ingates.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
• Besides with reduced total ingate area, still more satisfactory result may be
obtained if runner beyond each ingate is reduced in cross section to balance
the flow in all parts of the system and to equalise further velocity and
pressure.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Streamlining the gating system

Streamlining includes-

• Removing sharp corners or junction by giving a generous radius.

• Tapering the sprue.

• Providing radius at sprue entrance and exit.

 Principles of Gating and Risering

Schematic illustrating fluid flow around right angle and curved bends in a gating System.

Fig. a. Turbulence resulting Fig. b. Metal damage Fig. c. Streamlined corner that minimizes
from a sharp corner resulting from a sharp corner turbulence and metal damage
 Principles of Gating and Risering
ADVANTAGES OF STREAMLINING

• Metal turbulence is reduced.

• Air aspiration is avoided.

• Mould erosion and dross are minimized.

• Sound and clean casting are obtained.

 Principles of Gating and Risering
Use of Insulating material and exothermic compounds in risers

SLEEVES facilitate effective feeding of metal due to their unique design, thereby
extending the solidification time of risers used on castings.

The design of Exothermic sleeves initiate

exothermic reaction in the riser which liberates
heat.

Heat in the riser is conserved over an extended period as the Insulating sleeves
provide an efficient thermal insulating layer.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
SLEEVES provide strong and durable resistant to pressures generated during ramming of
sand in the foundries as they are vacuum moulded and their composition is carefully
formulated from high grade insulation / exothermic materials bonded with organic and
inorganic binders.

Function
• An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that is accompanied by the release of heat.

• It gives out energy to its surroundings.

• The energy needed for the reaction to occur is less than the total energy released.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
During the pouring of mould, an exothermic reaction sets in as molten metal fills
an exothermic sleeve riser.

It is possible to reduce the riser size considerably as compared to sand riser

system as the exothermic reaction helps in maintaining the riser metal
temperature over an extended period of time.

Yield: Use of Exothermic sleeves enables improving the yield by more than 30%
 Principles of Gating and Risering
BENEFITS

• Permits use of substantially reduced riser size without compromising on quality.

• Cost savings due to high foundry yields.

• Significant saving in energy and costly foundry inputs due to minimization of feed
metal.

• Higher productivity.
 Principles of Gating and Risering
Design of Riser
 Points 2 & 3
p 2 p v
gh 2   2 v 2   3 ρm = density of molten metal
 m 22 m 2
3
Let in the limiting case, p2 = p3, then from above equation

v 32  gh v2
2
2 2  2

A
We know that, v 2  A 3 v3  3
2
Rv
2
R2
2 gh
Combining above two eqns., v 3
2
 2 1
2g  h  R
2

v 23  v 32
2g
We know that between points 1 and 3, gh  v2 /
2
t 3
h2 h A3 hc
R 
c
2
1
Put this in R2 eqn, we get, R 
 ht ht
A 2
ht
POURING BASINS