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Unit 4 QuantumComputers Updated 10.1.2025

The document discusses low-dimensional structures in quantum mechanics, including quantum dots, quantum wires, and quantum wells, detailing how quantization occurs in different dimensions. It also introduces quantum computing concepts such as quantum bits (qubits), superposition, entanglement, and the operations of quantum gates. Additionally, it highlights the differences between classical and quantum bits, emphasizing the reversible nature of quantum operations.

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26 views30 pages

Unit 4 QuantumComputers Updated 10.1.2025

The document discusses low-dimensional structures in quantum mechanics, including quantum dots, quantum wires, and quantum wells, detailing how quantization occurs in different dimensions. It also introduces quantum computing concepts such as quantum bits (qubits), superposition, entanglement, and the operations of quantum gates. Additionally, it highlights the differences between classical and quantum bits, emphasizing the reversible nature of quantum operations.

Uploaded by

testrest227
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Quantum dot and

quantum wire
LOW-dimensional structures
 Three-dimensional (3D) structure or bulk
structure: No quantization of the particle motion
occurs, i.e., the particle is free.
 Two-dimensional (2D) structure or quantum
well: Quantization of the particle motion occurs in
one direction, while the particle is free to move in
the other two directions.
 One-dimensional (1D) structure or quantum
wire: Quantization occurs in two directions, leading
to free movement along only one direction.
 Zero-dimensional (0D) structure or quantum dot
(sometimes called “quantum box”): Quantization
occurs in all three directions.
Quantum Wire
 A standard quantum well layer can
be patterned with electron-beam
lithography, and etched to leave a
free standing strip of quantum well
material(in this case, Ga(1-x)AlxAs).
 Any charge carriers are still
confined along the hetero structure
growth (z-) axis, as they were in
the quantum well.
 but in addition (provided the strip
is narrow enough) they are now
confined along an additional
direction, either the x- or the y-
axis, depending on the lithography.
Quantum Dot

 Quantum dots can again be formed by further lithography and


etching, e.g. if a quantum well sample is etched to leave pillars
rather than wires, then a charge carrier can become confined
in all three dimensions, as shown in Fig.
Quantum
Computing
Overview

 Introduction
 Data Representation
Conclusion and Open Questions
Introduction

What is a quantum computer?

 A quantum computer is a machine that performs


calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics,
which is the behavior of particles at the sub-atomic
level.
Quantum bit
|1>
 2-dimensional vector of
length 1.
 Basis states |0>, |1>.
|0>
 Arbitrary state: |
0>+|1>,
here ,  complex,
satisfying ||2+ ||
2
=1.
Physical quantum bits
 Nuclear spin = orientation of atom’s nucleus in
magnetic field.
  = |0>,  = |1>.
 Photons in a cavity.
 No photon = |0>, one photon = |1>
Physical quantum bits (2)
 Energy states of an atom

|0> |1>

ground state excited state


 Polarization of photon
 Many others.
General quantum states
 k-dimensional quantum system.
 Basis |1>, |2>, …, |k>.
 General state
1|1>+2|2>+…+k|k>,
|1|^2+…+ |k|^2=1
 2k dimensional system can be constructed as a
tensor product of k quantum bits.
Examples
 Bit flip | 0  | 1 

| 1  | 0 
 Hadamard transform
 1 1
| 0  2 | 0   2
|1 
 1 1
 | 1  |0 |1 
 2 2
Classical vs. Quantum
Classical bits: Quantum bits:
 can be measured  can be measured
completely, partially,
 are not changed by  are changed by
measurement, measurement,
 can be copied,  cannot be copied,
 can be erased.  cannot be erased.
 Not reversible  reversible
Data Retrieval

 In general, an n qubit register can represent the numbers 0


through 2n-1 simultaneously.

Sound too good to be true?…It is!


 If we attempt to retrieve the values represented within a
superposition, the superposition randomly collapses to
represent just one of the original values.

In our equation: |> =  1 |0> +  2 |1> , 1 represents the


probability of the superposition collapsing to |0>. The ’s
are called probability amplitudes. In a balanced
n
superposition,  = 1/√2 where n is the number of qubits.
Relationships among data - Entanglement

Entanglement is the ability of quantum systems to exhibit


correlations between states within a superposition.
Imagine two qubits, each in the state |0> + |1> (a superposition
of the 0 and 1.) We can entangle the two qubits such that the
measurement of one qubit is always correlated to the
measurement of the other qubit.
Operations on Qubits - Reversible Logic

Due to the nature of quantum physics, the destruction of


information in a gate will cause heat to be evolved which can
destroy the superposition of qubits.

Ex.
Input Output
The AND Gate In these 3 cases,
A B C information is
0 0 0 being destroyed
A
0 1 0
C
B 1 0 0
1 1 1

This type of gate cannot be used. We must use


Quantum Gates (that are reversible).
Quantum Gates and truth table

Points to remember
Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have a
degenerate output. i.e. their original input state can be derived
from their output state, uniquely. They must be reversible.

This means that a deterministic computation can be performed


on a quantum computer only if it is reversible. Luckily, it has
been shown that any deterministic computation can be made
reversible.(Charles Bennet, 1973)
Working of Quantum Gates
Working of Quantum Gates - Hadamard

Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a Hadamard


Gate (also known as a square-root of NOT gate.) Used to put
qubits into superposition.

H H
State State | State
0> + |1> |0>
|0>

Note: Two Hadamard gates used in


succession to bring the same state
Quantum Gates - Controlled NOT

A gate which operates on two qubits is called a Controlled-


NOT (CN) Gate. If the bit on the control line is 1, invert
the bit on the target line.

Input Output
A - Target A’ A B A’ B’
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
B - Control B’ 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Note: The CN gate has a similar


behavior to the XOR gate with some
extra information to make it reversible.
Example Operation - Multiplication By 2

We can build a reversible logic circuit to calculate multiplication


by 2 using CN gates arranged in the following manner:

Input Output
Carry Ones Carry Ones
Bit Bit Bit Bit
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0

0 Carry Bit

Ones Bit
H
Quantum Gates - Controlled Controlled NOT (CCN)

A gate which operates on three qubits is called a


Controlled Controlled NOT (CCN) Gate. Iff the bits on
both of the control lines is 1,then the target bit is inverted.

Input Output
A B C A’ B’ C’
A - Target A’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
B - Control 1 B’ 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
C - Control 2 C’ 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
A Universal Quantum Computer

 The CCN gate has been shown to be a universal reversible


logic gate as it can be used as a NAND gate.

A - Target A’ Input Output


A B C A’ B’ C’
0 0 0 0 0 0
B - Control 1 B’ 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
C - Control 2 C’ 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
When our target input is 1, our target
output is a result of a NAND of B and C.

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