UNIT –II SYLLABUS

 Planning for Research-

Research Process, Formulation of Research
Problem, Literature Review, Concepts,
Variables and Types of Variables-Independent,
Dependent, Extraneous, Moderating, Mediating

 Hypothesis and Development of Research

Hypothesis-
Hypothesis Types, Hypothesis Testing Process,
Type-I and
Type –II Error

 Research Design-
 Need for Research Design, Features of a Good
Research Design, Types of Research Design
PLANNING FOR RESEARCH
PROCESS
 Research process
 The research process is similar to undertaking
a journey for a research journey there are two
important decision to make –
 What you want to find out about or what
research questions(problems) you want to
find answers to
 How to go about finding their answers
 Steps in Research process
• 1. formulating the research problem

• 2.extensive literature review

• 3.developing the objectives

• 4. preparing the research design including sample design

• 5.collection of data

• 6.analysis of data

• 7. generalization and interpretation

• 8. preparation of report and presentation of results

Steps in Formulation of a research problem

Identify the broad field or subject area of interest to you

Dissect the broad area into sub areas

Select what is most interest to you

Raise research questions

Formulate objectives

Assess your objectives

Double check
 Reviewing the literature
• Steps are
• 1.bring clarity and focus to your research
problem
• 2.improve your methodology
• 3.Broaden your knowledge
• 4. contextualize your findings

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TOPIC COVERED IN PLANNING FOR RESEARCH
 Research Process,
 Formulation of Research

Problem,
 Literature Review,

 Variables and Types of

Variables
 Independent,
 Dependent,
 Extraneous,
 Moderating,
 Mediating
 RESEARCH PROCESS
 Research process consists of series of
actions or steps necessary to effectively
carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps.

1) Formulating the research problem;

2) Extensive literature survey;
3) Developing the hypothesis;
4) Preparing the research design;
5) Determining sample design;
6) Collecting the data;
7) Execution of the project;
8) Analysis of data;
9) Hypothesis testing;
10) Generalizations and Interpretation
 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM,
 Research Problem,- A Research Problem is a
specific issue or concern that a researcher
would like to investigate.

 Definition:-A research problem, in general, refers to

some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either a theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same (C.R. Kohari)

 Essentially two steps are involved in formulating

the
research problem, viz.,
1) Understanding the problem thoroughly, and
2) Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from
ESSENTIAL POINTS IN SELECTING RESEARC
PROBLEM, H

 Subject which is overdone should not be normally

chosen.

 Controversial subject should be avoided.

 Too narrow or too vague problems should be

avoided.

 The selection of a problem must be preceded by a

preliminary study.

 Qualifications of Researcher, Costs involved

and Time factor should also be consider in
 LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a comprehensive
summary of previous research on a topic.

 The literature review surveys scholarly

articles, books, and other sources
relevant to a particular area of research.

A literature review creates a "landscape"

for the reader, giving her or him a full
understanding of the developments in
the field.
 CONCEPT
 In research, a concept is typically an
abstract idea that represents a
phenomenon or a set of relationships.
 Concepts are often used to explain and

predict behavior.
 Concepts are used in research to help

guide the research process and to provide

a framework for data analysis.
 Concepts can be used to develop

hypotheses, which are testable

predictions about the relationships
between variables.
 VARIABLE
S
 A concept which can take on different quantitative values is
called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height,
income are all examples of variables.
 Dependent Variable:- If one variable depends upon or is a
consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable
.
 Independent variable:- Variable that is antecedent to the
dependent variable is termed as an independent variable.
 Ex:- a study of hospital emergency management plan with
respect to human resource practices
 Here Independent variable is-human resource practices –
problem creator
 Here dependent variable is –hospital emergency management
plan-problem stopper
 VARIABLES (CONT.
 Extraneous …)
variables:-
 Independent variables that are not related
to the purpose of the study, but may affect
the dependent variable are termed as
extraneous variables.
 Example:-Suppose the researcher wants to test
the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies
achievement and their self-concepts.
 In this case self-concept is an independent
variable and social studies achievement is a
dependent variable.
 Intelligence may as well affect the social
studies achievement, but since it is not
related to the purpose of the study
undertaken by the researcher, it will be
 VARIABLES (CONT.
…)
 Moderating variables:- Variable that affects
the strength and direction of that
relationship between Independent and
Dependent Variables.
 It Changes the relationship between
dependent and independent variables by
strengthening or weakening the
intervening variable's effect

 Example:- Age may be moderating variable for

Exercise
and Cardiovascular Health.
 Example :-Parenting Style can moderate the
relationship
between Child’s Age and Child’s Behavior.
 VARIABLES (CONT.
…)
 Mediating Variable:
 A theoretical variable used to explain a

cause or connection between other study

variables. explains the process through
which two variables are related. It is also
called intervening Variable.

 Example:-Access to health care: If wealth is

the independent variable, and a long life
span is a dependent variable, a researcher
might hypothesize that access to quality
health care is the intervening variable that
 HYPOTHESIS
&
DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS- USE FOR SINGLE ASSUMPTION
HYPOTHESES-USE FOR 2 OR MORE THAN 2
ASSUMPTION
 HYPOTHESIS & DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS

 What is Hypothesis-hypothesis is a
assumption concept showing
relationship between two variables
 Development of Research Hypothesis
 Hypothesis Types,
 Hypothesis Testing Process,
 Type-I and Type –II Error
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
 Constructing hypothesis
The verification process can have one of the
three outcomes you hunch may prove
1. Right
2. Partially right
3. Wrong
 WHAT IS HYPOTHESIS?
 Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one
simply means a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved.

 But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal question

that he intends to resolve.

 Thus a Hypothesis may be defined as “a

proposition or a set of proposition set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified
group of phenomena either asserted merely as a
provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or
accepted as highly probable in the light of
established facts.”
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
1) Null Hypothesis (H0)

2) Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)


Alternative hypothesis is usually the one
which one wishes to prove.(there is a
significant difference between set of variables )

 Null hypothesis is the one which one

wishes to disprove.(there is no statistical
significance difference between two
variables in hypothesis)

 Null Hypothesis is denoted by H0

 DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESIS
 Example:-

 H01 = There is no significant relationship

between
Advertisement and Sales.
 Ha1 = There is a significant relationship

between
Advertisement and Sales.

 H02 = There is no significance impact of

Quality
on Customer Satisfaction.
 Ha2 = There is a significance impact of
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING PROCESS
 (i) Setting up the Hypothesis:-.This means that
Hypothesis
should be clearly stated.

 (ii) Selecting a significance level:- The hypotheses are

tested on a pre-determined level of significance and as
such the same should be specified. Generally, in
practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the
purpose.

 (iii) Test Statistics:- Apply the type of test statistic such

as t-
Test, Z-test, ANOVA, Chi-Square etc.

 (iv) Critical Value:- Find the critical value from the

standard
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING PROCESS
 (V) Decision:- Compare the value of test statistic and
critical value , the decision of Rejection and
Acceptance of Null Hypothesis can be taken from
following criteria.
 Reject Null Hypothesis, if

 Two Tailed Test

 Value of Test Statistic < Lower Critical Value or

 Value of Test Statistic > Upper Critical Value

 Right Tailed Test

 Value of Test Statistic > Critical Value

 Left Tailed Test

 Value of Test Statistic < Critical Value

 Otherwise Accept the Null Hypothesis

Normal Distribution Curve, N (0,1)

µ = Mean
σ = Standard Deviation

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Observed Value
 ONE TAILED TEST (LEFT TAILED)
 The alternative hypothesis contains
the “<” sign.

H1: µ < µ0 and H0 : µ = µ0
 Where µ = Population Mean,
 µ0 = Hypothesised Mean

 Example : Suppose it’s assumed that the

average weight of a certain Electronics product
in a factory is 20 grams. However, Researcher
believes the true average weight is less than 20
grams.
µ < 20g µ0 = 20g, µ < µ0 ,
 We will use Left Tailed Test
 ONE TAILED TEST (LEFT
TAILED)

(-1.645)
 ONE TAILED TEST (RIGHT TAILED)
 The alternative hypothesis contains
the “>” sign.

H1: µ > µ0 and H0 : µ = µ0
 Where µ = Population Mean,
 µ0 = Hypothesised Mean

 Example : Suppose it’s assumed that the

average height of a certain species of plant is
10 inches tall. However, one botanist claims the
true average height is greater than 10
inches..
µ > 10 inches µ0 = 10 inches
 Therefore we will use Right Tailed Test
ONE TAILED TEST (RIGHT
TAILED)

(1.645)
 TWO TAILED TEST
 The alternative hypothesis contains the
“≠”
sign.

H1: µ ≠ µ0and H0 : µ = µ0
 Where µ = Population Mean,
 µ0 = Hypothesised Mean

 Example : A professor believes that a certain

studying technique will influence the mean score
that his students receive on a certain exam, but He
 is unsure if it will increase or decrease the mean
Ha; µ ≠ µ0 = 82, H0 ; µ = µ0 i.e, µ =82
score, which is currently 82.
82
 TWO TAILED TEST

(-1.96) (1.96)
 TYPE-I & TYPE –II ERROR

Decision

Accept H0 Reject H0

Type-I Error
H0 True Correct Decision
(α Error)

Type-II Error
Correct
H0 False (β Error)
Decision
QUER
Y
RESEARCH DESIGN
 RESEARCH DESIGN

 What is Research Design?

 Need for Research Design,
 Features of a Good Research
Design,
 Types of Research Design
 WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?

 “A research design is the arrangement of

conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure”.


It is a blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.

 In fact, the research design is the

conceptual structure within which
research is conducted
 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
 It provides the smooth functioning of the various
research
operations.


It makes Research as efficient as possible
producing maximum information with minimum
expenditure of effort, time and money.

 The design helps the researcher to organize his

ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him
to look for flaws and inadequacies.

 Comprehensive review of the proposed study

can be possible through Research Design.
 FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN,

A Good Research Design should minimizes
Bias and maximizes the Reliability of the data
collected and analyzed is considered a good
design.


A Good Research Design should gives the
smallest experimental error.


A Good Research Design should provides
maximum information.

 A Good Research Design consider all aspects

of the Problem.
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
 Descriptive research studies are those studies
which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a
group.

 (a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the
study is
about and why is it being made?)
 (b) Designing the methods of data collection (what
techniques of
gathering data will be adopted?)
 (c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be
needed?)
 (d) Collecting the data (where can the required data
be found
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
 It is used to test causal relationships.

 This type of research design looks at a

problem scientifically by establishing a
clear cause and effect of every event.

 It tries to understand the impact of the

independent variable on the dependable
variable.

Often social sciences use it to observe
human behaviours and understand the
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
 Correlationresearch design establishes a
relationship between two related variables.

 Variables are measured without influencing

them.

 Theresearcher observes the variables over

time and then draws conclusions based on
them.

 Thevalue of the correlation coefficient ranges

between
 DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH DESIGN

 In diagnostic research, the design

strives to explore the reason behind
an issue and find solutions to solve it.

 Thistype of research design tries to solve

the problems in a structured form
divided into three phases- the issue’s
inception, diagnosis of the issue, and
solution for the issue.
 EXPLANATORY RESEARCH DESIGN

 Inthis research design, the researcher

explores concepts and ideas on a subject
to explore more theories.

 Themain aim of the research is to

explore the subjects’ undiscovered
aspects and answer questions like
what, how, and why.
 Preparing the RESEARCH DESIGN

 Objectives of the research study

 Method of data collection to be adopted
 Source of information
 Tool for data collection
 Data analysis –qualitative and quantitative .
THANK YOU