Electrical Machines

B.Sc. Electrical Engineering

Lecture # 04
AC Fundamentals

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Learning Objectives
• Multiplication & Division of Phasors
• AC Through Pure Resistance
• Power in Resistive Circuit
• AC Through Pure Inductance
• Inductive Reactance (XL)
• Power & Power Triangle (R-L Circuit)
• AC Through Pure Capacitance
• Capacitive Reactance (XC)
• Impedance & impedance Triangle
• Apparent , Active & Reactive
Powers
• Power Factor Concepts 2
Multiplication & Division of Phasors

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AC Through Pure Resistance

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Conclusions
• Phase angle (ф) is zero
• Current is in phase with the applied voltage
• I &V attain maximum (positive &
negative) and zero values at the same time

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Power of Pure Resistive Circuit

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As average value of fluctuating cosine
component of double frequency is zero over one
complete cycle, therefore average power
consumption over one cycle is equal to constant
power component.

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AC Through Pure Inductance

• Pure inductor has zero internal resistance and coil

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Conclusions
• Current is purely sinusoidal and has
phase difference of - π/2 radian i.e., - 90 degree.
• Negative sign indicates current lags applied voltage
by an angle of 90 degree.

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Inductive Reactance (XL)
• Opposition offered by inductor to flow
of current
• Measured in ohms & depends on frequency

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Power of Pure Inductive Circuit

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Conclusions
• When power curve is positive, energy gets stored
in the magnetic field established due to
increasing current.
• When power curve is negative, energy is returned
back to supply.
• Average power consumed in pure inductor in
complete cycle is zero.
Pure inductor never consumes power
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AC Through Pure Capacitance

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Conclusions
• Current is purely sinusoidal and has
phase difference of + π/2 radian
i.e., + 90 degree.
• Positive sign indicates current leads applied voltage
by an angle of 90 degree.

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Capacitive Reactance (XC)
• Opposition offered by capacitance to flow
of alternating current.
• Measured in ohms & depends on frequency.

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Impedance (Z) & Impedance Triangle
• Opposition of circuit to flow of alternating current,
denoted by Z & measured in ohms.
• Current lags behind voltage in L by an angle φ
and in phase in R.

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• From voltage triangle,

Impedance Triangle
• Divide all sides of voltage triangle to get impedance
triangle

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• X component of Z is R and is given by

• Y component of Z is XL and is given by

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Power & power triangle (R-L series)

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Apparent Power (VA, KVA, MVA)
• Apparent power is generated at generating
stations and is transmitted to loads. It is the
combination of active power and reactive power.
• Apparent power is a function of a circuit's total
impedance (Z) and is conventionally expressed in
volt-amperes (VA).
S=P+Q
= Active power + Reactive power
= VI Cos θ + VI Sin θ

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Active Power (W, KW, MW)
• Active power useful energy.
provides example, For for
motion for heaters & lightmotors,
energy energy energyheating
for bulbs.

Reactive Power (KVAR)

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Power Factor
a) Cosine of phase angle (θ) between
load current and voltage.
b) Ratio between real and apparent powers.

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Disadvantages of low Power Factor
1. Large KVA rating of equipment
KVA = KW/Cosθ, If power factor is low, then the
KVA rating of the equipment has to be made
more, making the equipment larger and
expensive.
2. Greater conductor size
3. Large copper losses
4. Poor voltage regulation
4. High Energy Bill
Low power factor increases the KVA
demand which in turn increases the energy
bill.
Energy Bill = KVA demand charges +
Energy charges 30
Improvement of power factor
•
Static capacitors are used to generate
reactive power and to improve the power
factor. Capacitors compensate the reactive

power absorbed by inductive loads.

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Lecture Review
 Polar to Rectangular Form & Vice Versa?
 Active , Reactive & Apparent Power?
 Power Factor? Advantages of High
P.F?
 Causes of Low P.F? Improvement?
 Impedance & Impedance Triangle?
 Power & Power Triangle?
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