the round earth, the

geocentric theory and

Kepler
We trace modern science to the Greeks.
Why?

1. Tried to understand nature without resorting to

supernatural explanations.
(debate and challenges of ideas)
2. Used mathematics to give precision to their ideas.
3. Applied reasoning to observations.
4. Applied the concept of MODELS.
 Greek astronomy: their observation was:

They saw the celestial bodies move around them (Earth):

GEOCENTRIC model
Eratosthenes measures the Earth (c. 240 BC)
So what answer did he get? We know now that Earth is about 40
thousand kilometers (about 24,860 miles) around. We don't know
for sure what answer Eratosthenes got. His measurement
between Alexandria and Syene was in stadia.
The stadion was used to measure distance in ancient times. It
was used like a kilometer or a mile is used today. We don't know
for sure how long the stadion that Eratosthenes used was. It
might have been one length, or it might have been another. So
maybe his answer was really, really good.
Plato, Aristotle ---> Earth is the center and the heavens
must be “perfect” defined as perfect spheres and
perfect circles.

Ptolemy

Ptolemaic model was the

most sophisticated version
of the geocentric model
(A.D. 100-170)
It was sufficiently accurate
to remain in use for 1,500
years!
The geocentric universe
 Greek geocentric model (c. 400 B.C.)

But this model was not perfect … because of an observation

 Retrograde Motion
1. Planets usually move slightly eastward
from night to night relative to the stars.
2. But sometimes they go westward relative to the stars
for a few weeks: apparent retrograde motion
This needs to be explained with the geocentric model

Dr. Ted Snow’s web page at The University of Colorado, Boulder

Epicyles
The Earth OBVIOUSLY stands still (Ptolemaic model)
therefore:
1. The Sun rises and sets, orbiting the Earth
(geocentric model)
2. The moon rises and sets (it does orbit Earth!)
3. The stars all rise and set together, rotating about
point, centered on the Earth (geocentric model)
4. If the Earth revolved around the Sun, the positions of
the stars would appear to change (parallax), but,
stars did not appear to exhibit parallax .
 Greeks
Library of Alexandria

Islamic Science Preservation

House of Wisdom (Baghdad) 800 A.D.

European Science Renaissance

Europe (1453)
• Copernicus realized
the Solar System was
heliocentric—centered
on the Sun.
• Planets exhibit
apparent retrograde
motion due to their
distances from
Earth.
– Appear to turn
around.
Nicolas Copernicus
(1473-1543, Poland)

• The center of the Solar System is near the Sun.

(published 1543)
• Parallax: Earth-Sun distance <<< distance to the stars.
• The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily
rotation (diurnal motion) of the stars.
• The apparent annual cycle of movements of the Sun is caused
by the Earth revolving round the Sun.
• The apparent retrograde (backward) motion of the planets is
caused by the motion of the Earth around the Sun
• The planets follow circular orbits around the Sun.
Recall the Ptolemeic/geocentric model
 So, in a mere 1500 years, we went from:
Ptolemic/geocentric model Copernican/heliocentric model

http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/lesson/basics/g37/graphics/g37_copernicus.gif

http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/lesson/basics/g37/graphics/g37_ptolemy.gif
Tycho Brahe
(1546-1601, Denmark)
Geocentrist
• Compiled the most precise measurements of
the planets’ positions for his time, with no
telescope
• Observed a supernova (1572), and showed it
was at the distance of the stars, not close to
Earth
• He could not detect a stellar parallax, and
proposed that stars were too far away or Earth
is the center of Universe.

Earth being the center.
• Hired Kepler
http://www.space.com/24712-tycho-supernova-mach-1000-shock-wave.html
 Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630, Germany)

• Brahe assigned him the tough

problem of Mars’ retrograde motion.
(Cannot explain retrograde if
Earth is at the center)
• Found that planetary orbits were
heliocentric and elliptical (not circular)

Heliocentric = centered around the SUN

had believed that we could ignore these eight minute
arc], I would have patched up my hypothesis accordin
t, since it was not permissible to ignore, those eight
nutes pointed the road to a complete reformation in
ronomy.”
 1400 1500 1600 1700

Copernicus + Tycho + Kepler = Kepler’s Laws

• Kepler’s 1st Law: Planet orbits are ellipses.
• Each ellipse has two foci.
• The Sun is at one focus of a planet’s elliptical orbit.
An ellipse is characterized by:
semi-major axis (the distance between the two foci)
eccentricity
• Each orbit has a shape and a size.
• The eccentricity describes how elongated the ellipse is
and how far the foci are separated.
• Kepler’s 2nd Law: the Law of Equal Areas.
As a planet moves around its orbit,
it sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

tB areas:
A=B=C
slow
tA
tC tA = t B = t C
fast
• Consequences:
 A planet will go fastest when closest to the Sun.
 It will go slowest when farthest from the Sun.

slow
tA
tC
fast
 • Kepler’s 3rd Law:
A planet’s orbital
period depends
on its distance from the Sun

orbital period (P) is the time to orbit the Sun once.

distance (a), actually the average distance

P 2
=a 3

P is in units of years
a is in units of A.U.
Kepler’s 3rd Law
• Consequences:
– Distant planets take longer to orbit the Sun.
– Distant planets travel at slower speeds.
 Summary

• How did Copernicus, Tycho, and Kepler

challenge the Earth-centered idea?
 Copernicus created a sun-centered model
 Tycho provided the data needed to improve this model
 Kepler found a model that fit Tycho’s data
 Summary
Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion

1. The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the

Sun at one focus

2. As a planet moves around its orbit it sweeps

our equal areas in equal times

3. The time for planets to orbit the Sun is related

to its distance from the Sun:
P2=a3
 Verify Kepler’s 3rd law
Period Average
Planet
(yr) Distance (au)
Mercury 0.241 0.39
Venus .615 0.72
Earth 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.88 1.52
Jupiter 11.8 5.20
Saturn 29.5 9.54
Uranus 84.0 19.18
Neptune 165 30.06
Pluto 248 39.44

NOTE: The average distance value is given in astronomical units where 1

a.u. is equal to the distance from the earth to the sun - 1.4957 x 10 11 m. The
orbital period is given in units of earth-years where 1 earth year is the time
required for the earth to orbit the sun - 3.156 x 10 7 seconds.
 COMPARISON OF THE MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE PROPOSED
BY EUDOXUS, ARISTOTLE, ARISTARCHUS, PTOLEMY, AND
COPERNICUS:
Thinker Model of the Key Features Strengths Limitations
Universe
Eudoxus (c. 4th Geocentric - Earth-centered - First systematic - Could not fully
century BCE) (Homocentric with nested attempt to explain
Spheres) spheres. explain celestial retrograde
- 27 concentric motion motion of
spheres to mathematically. planets.
explain planetary
motion.
Aristotle (384– Geocentric - Earth-centered - Unified natural - Still could not
322 BCE) (Hierarchical with a set of 55 philosophy with explain planetary
Spheres) nested celestial motion. motion
crystalline - Dominated accurately.
spheres. Western thought - Assumed
- Outer sphere for centuries. circular orbits,
was the "Prime contradicting
Mover." later
- Celestial realm observations.
made of aether,
different from the
earthly realm.
Aristarchus (c. Heliocentric - Proposed the - First recorded - Lacked
3rd century (Sun-Centered) Sun as the heliocentric observational
BCE) center of the theory. proof and
universe. - Explained mathematical
- Earth rotated retrograde backing.
on its axis and motion - Rejected in
orbited the Sun. naturally. favor of
- Estimated Aristotle’s and
relative Ptolemy’s
distances of the geocentric
Sun and Moon. models.
Ptolemy (c. 2nd Geocentric - Earth-centered - Provided a - Complex and
century CE) (Epicycles & system with highly accurate unnatural
Deferents) planets moving predictive model system.
in small circles of planetary - Required
(epicycles) along positions. constant
larger circular - Used for over a modifications to
paths thousand years. match
(deferents). observations.
- Introduced the
equant to adjust
for
inconsistencies.
Copernicus Heliocentric - Sun at the - Simplified - Still
(1473–1543 (Sun- center, Earth planetary assumed
CE) Centered) and planets motion circular orbits,
orbit in without leading to
circular paths. epicycles. discrepancies.
- Earth rotates - Provided a - Lacked
on its axis, foundation for immediate
explaining later observational
daily motion refinements proof until
of the sky. (Kepler’s later work
- Retrograde elliptical (e.g., Galileo,
motion orbits). Kepler).
explained
naturally.
Summary:
Eudoxus and Aristotle proposed Earth-


centered models with nested spheres but

could not fully explain planetary motion.
Aristarchus was ahead of his time with a


Sun-centered model, but it lacked empirical

support.
Ptolemy refined the geocentric model with


epicycles, making it more accurate but

overly complex.
Copernicus revived the heliocentric model,


simplifying planetary motion and setting the