Forming process

1
Metal forming
Deformation due to stress
σ=F/A
Deformation behaviour
 Forming process
Metal forming: A large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is deformed plastically to
take a specific shape with or without use of die. The tools used for such deformation are called die,
punch etc. depending on the type of process.

Plastic deformation is the permanent distortion that occurs when a material is subjected to tensile,
compressive, bending, or torsion stresses that exceed its yield strength and cause it to elongate, compress,
buckle, bend, or twist.

Forging.mp4

5
Elastic deformation
Nature of material
 Plastic deformation

Perfect crystal

Crystal with defect

Grain size and its effect

9
Force vs Deformation
 Initial requirements
Physical properties of the material melting point, yield strength evaluated by experimentation.

11
Material strength evaluation

vlc-record-2020-01-01-16h23m29s-videoplayback.mp4-.mp4

12
 𝑛
𝜎 𝑓 =𝐾 𝜖 𝑇

σ =𝐸 𝜖 𝑛
𝐾 𝜖𝑇
𝜎𝑓=
𝑛+1

𝜖 𝑇 =ln ( 1+ 𝜖 )
𝜎 𝑇 =σ ( 1+ 𝜖 )
13
 True stress and true strain
Whereas engineering stress is based on the original dimensions of a specimen, the true stress is based on an
instantaneous measurement of the cross-sectional area. True stress-true strain curves are often called flow
curves, which represent plastic flow of the material.

14
15
 Metal forming
Bulk deformation: characterized by significant
deformations and massive shape and the
surface
changes,area-to-volume of the work is relatively small.

Extrusion
Rolling

Forging Wire drawing

Fig. : Basic bulk deformation processes

 Metal forming
Products of Bulk Deformation Processes
 Metal forming
Sheet metalworking: forming and cutting operations performed on metal sheets, strips,
and coils.
The surface area-to-volume of the work is relatively high .

Bending Deep drawing

(1) (2)

Shearing

Fig.: Sheet metal working processes

 Metal forming
Products of Sheet metal working
 Metal forming
Advantages
• Higher productivity: Hundred of tonnes of end products per working shift
• Close control on mechanical properties and structure
• Minimum waste of metal

• Production of many products (Extra thin foil, wires, sheets etc.) started with the
development of mechanical working
 Hot Working and Cold Working
The metal working processes are traditionally divided into hot working and cold working
processes.
Those processes, working above the recrystallization temperature, are termed as hot working
processes whereas those below are termed as cold working processes.
Recrystallisation
 Hot Working and Cold Working

• The metal working processes are traditionally divided into hot working
and cold working processes.

• Those processes, working above the recrystallisation temperature, are

termed as hot working processes whereas those below are termed as
cold working processes.

23
24
 Recrystallisation
• Under the action of heat and the force, when the atoms reach a certain higher energy level, the new
crystals start forming which is termed as recrystallisation.

• Recrystallisation destroys the old grain structure deformed by the mechanical working, and entirely
new crystals, which are strain free are formed. The grains are in fact start nucleating at the points of
severest deformation.

25
Cold Working (also known as cold forming) is metal forming performed below
recrystallization temperature.

Benefits
•Greater accuracy
•Better surface finish
•Higher strength and hardness
•No heating of the work is required

Limitations
•Higher forces and power are required
•Strain hardening

26
Hot working (also called hot forming) involves deformation at temperatures above
the recrystallization temperature.
Benefits

•Lower forces and power are required

•Bulk formation can be achieved
•No Strain hardening

Limitations
•Lower dimensional accuracy
•Work surface oxidation
•Poor surface finish
•Shorter tool life
Heat treatment: Annealing involves heating a material above its recrystallization
temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature for a suitable amount of time, and
then cooling. 27
Classification of metal forming
operation

28
 Rolling
• Rolling is a process where the metal is compressed between two rotating rolls for
reducing its cross‑sectional area (Fig 7.5).
• This is one of the most widely used of all the metal working processes, because of
its higher productivity and low cost.
• Rolling is normally a hot working process unless specifically mentioned as cold
rolling.
 Forging
• Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force is applied to
manipulate the metal in such a way that the required final shape is obtained.
• Forging is generally a hot working operation though cold forging is used
sometimes.

Forging.mp4

Forging operations
Drawing out: This is the operation in which the metal gets elongated with a reduction in the
cross‑sectional area.
Force is to be applied in a direction, perpendicular to the length axis.
Upsetting: This is applied to increase the cross‑sectional area of the stock at the expense of its
length.
Force is applied in a direction parallel to the length axis.
 Forging types
• Smith forging This is the traditional forging operation done openly or in open dies by the
village black smith or modern shop floor by manual hammering or by power hammers.

• Drop forging This is the operation done in closed impression dies by means of the drop
hammers. Here the force for shaping the component is applied in a series of blows.

• Press forging Similar to drop forging, the press forging is also done in closed impression
dies with the exception that the force is a continuous squeezing type applied by the
hydraulic presses.
 Extrusion
• Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in a closed cavity and then allowing it to flow from
only one opening so that the metal will take the shape of the opening.
• The operation is identical to the squeezing of tooth paste out of the tooth paste tube

Extrusion animation.mp4 Extrusion.mp4

Extrusion principle
• The equipment consists of a cylinder or container into which the heated metal billet is loaded.
• On one end of the container, the die plate with the necessary opening is fixed.
• From the other end, a plunger or ram compresses the metal billet against the container walls
and the die plate, thus forcing it to flow through the die opening, acquiring the shape of the
opening.
• The extruded metal is then carried by the metal handling system as it comes out of the die.
 Wire Drawing
• A wire by definition, is circular with small diameters so that it is flexible.
• The process of wire drawing is to obtain wires from rods of bigger diameter through a die.
• Wire drawing is always a cold working process.
 Thread Rolling
• It utilizes two rotating rolling dies with the external profile of the thread to exert dynamic force on the
surface of the workpiece.
• As the thread form on the rolling die is pressed into the surface of the workpiece the thread form is
transformed all the way to the root diameter of the thread.

Thread Rolling Process.mp4

Rolling defects

Alligatoring
 Forging defects
a) Unfilled sections: In this some sections of the die cavity are not completely filled by the
flowing metal.
b) Cold shut: This appears as a small crack at the corners of the forging.
c) Scale pits: This is seen as irregular depressions on the surface of the forging.
d) Die shift: This is caused by the misalignment of the two die halves, making the two halves
of the forging to be of improper shape.
e) Flakes: These are basically internal ruptures caused by the improper cooling of the large
forging.
f) Improper grain flow: This is caused by the improper design of the die, which makes the
flow of metal not following the final intended directions.
 Drawing operation

Progressive downward motion of the punch results in a continuation of the metal flow
caused by tension and compression forces 37
 Spinning
• Spinning is the process used for making cup shaped articles which are axi-
symmetrical.
• The process of spinning consists of rotating the blank, fixed against the form
block and then applying a gradually moving force on the blank so that, the
blank takes the shape of the form block.

spinning.mp4
 Embossing and Coining
• Embossing is the operation used in making raised figures on sheets with its corresponding relief
on the other side.
• Coining is essentially a cold forging operation except for the fact that the flow of the metal occurs
only at the top layers and not the entire volume.
 Explosive Forming
• In explosive forming the explosive is employed to generate shock waves to directly deform the
workpiece at very high velocities (high strain rates).
• Standoff method
• Contact method
 Spring Back
• When the metal is deformed, it is first elastically deformed and then plastically.
• When the applied load is removed, the plastic component of the deformation remains
permanently while elastic part springs back to its original shape.

Spring back.mp4
 Shearing Operations
Blanking
• It is a process in which the punch removes a portion of material from the stock which is a strip
of sheet metal of the necessary thickness and width.
• The removed portion is called a blank and is usually further processed to be of some use, e.g.,
blanking of a pad lock key.
Thanks

44