Network Layer:

Delivery,
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Forwarding,
and Routing
 DELIVER
Y The network layer supervises the handling of
the packets by the underlying physical
networks. We define this handling as the
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delivery of a packet.
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Topics discussed in this section:

Direct Versus Indirect Delivery

 FORWARDIN
G
Forwarding means to place the packet in its
route to its destination. Forwarding requires a
host or a router to have a routing table. When a
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host has a packet to send or when a router has

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received a packet to be forwarded, it looks at

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this table to find the route to the final

destination.

Topics discussed in this section:

Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process
Routing Table
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Direct and indirect delivery

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Route method versus next-hop method

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Host-specific versus network-specific method

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Default method
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Simplified forwarding module in classless address

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In classless addressing, we need at least four
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columns in a routing table.

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Make a routing table for router R1, using the
configuration following.

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 Make a routing table for
router R1, using the
configuration following.

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Routing table for router R1

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Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1
in Figure with the destination address 180.70.65.140.
Solution
The router performs the following steps:
1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination

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address.

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The result is 180.70.65.128, which does not match

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the
corresponding network address.
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 180.70.65.128, which
matches the
corresponding network address. The next-hop
address
and the interface number m0 are passed toPlease
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Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1
in Figure with the destination address 201.4.22.35.

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Solution

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The router performs the following steps:

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1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 201.4.22.0, which does not
match the corresponding network address.
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the
destination address. The result is 201.4.22.0,
which does not match the corresponding network
address (row 2).
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Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1
in Figure with the destination address 201.4.22.35.
3. The third mask (/24) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 201.4.22.0, which matches

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Solution
the

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Thecorresponding
router performs the following
network address.steps:
The destination

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1. The first mask
address of the(/26) is applied
packet and thetointerface
the destination
number
m3address.
are The result is 201.4.22.0, which does not
match
passedthe to corresponding
ARP. network address.
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the
destination address. The result is 201.4.22.0,
which does not match the corresponding network
address (row 2).
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As an example of hierarchical routing, let us consider
Figure. A regional ISP is granted 16,384 addresses
starting from 120.14.64.0. The regional ISP has
decided to divide this block into four subblocks, each
with 4096 addresses. Three of these subblocks are

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assigned to three

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local ISPs; the second subblock is reserved for future

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use. Note that the mask for each block is /20
because the original block with mask /18 is divided
into 4 blocks.
The first local ISP has divided its assigned subblock
into 8 smaller blocks and assigned each to a small
ISP. Each small ISP provides services to 128
households, each using four addresses.
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 As an example of hierarchical routing, let us consider
The second
Figure. local ISP
A regional ISP has divided16,384
is granted its block into 4
addresses
blocks
startingand has assigned
from 120.14.64.0. the addresses
The regionalto four
ISPlarge
has
organizations.
decided to divide this block into four subblocks, each
with 4096 addresses. Three of these subblocks are

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The third to
assigned local
threeISP has divided its block into 16

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blocks andtheassigned
local ISPs; each block
second subblock to a
is reserved for small
future

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organization.
use. Note that Eachthe small
mask organization
for each block has is 256
/20
addresses,
because the andoriginal
the mask is /24.
block with mask /18 is divided
into 4 blocks.
There is a sense of hierarchy in this configuration. All
The first local ISP has divided its assigned subblock
routers in the Internet send a packet with destination
into 8 smaller blocks and assigned each to a small
address 120.14.64.0 to 120.14.127.255 to the
ISP. Each small ISP provides services to 128
regional ISP.
households, each using four addresses.
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 examp
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Hierarchical routing with ISPs
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 examp
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Common fields in a routing table

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One utility that can be used to find the contents of a
routing table for a host or router is netstat in UNIX or
LINUX. The next slide shows the list of the contents of

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a default server. We have used two options, r and n.

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The option r indicates that we are interested in the

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routing table, and the option n indicates that we are
looking for numeric addresses. Note that this is a
routing table for a host, not a router. Although we
discussed the routing table for a router throughout the
chapter, a host also needs a routing table.

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One utility that can be used to find the contents of a
routing table for a host or router is netstat in UNIX or
LINUX. The next slide shows the list of the contents
of a default server. We have used two options, r and
n. The option r indicates that we are interested in the
routing table, and the option n indicates that we are
looking for numeric addresses. Note that this is a

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routing table for a host, not a router. Although we

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discussed the routing table for a router throughout
the chapter, a host also needs a routing table.

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The destination column here defines the
network address. The term gateway used
by UNIX is synonymous with router. This
column actually defines the address of the
next hop. The value 0.0.0.0 shows that the
delivery is direct. The last entry has a flag
of G, which means that the destination can
be reached through a router (default
router). The Iface defines the interface.
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More information about the IP address and physical
address of the server can be found by using the
ifconfig command on the given interface (eth0).

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The destination column here defines the network

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address. The term gateway used by UNIX is
synonymous with router. This column actually defines
the address of the next hop. The value 0.0.0.0 shows
that the delivery is direct. The last entry has a flag of
G, which means that the destination can be reached
through a router (default router). The Iface defines the
interface.
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More information about the IP address and physical
address of the server can be found by using the
ifconfig command on the given interface (eth0).

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 UNICAST
ROUTING
PROTOCOLS A routing table can be either static or dynamic.
A static table is one with manual entries. A
dynamic table is one that is updated
automatically when there is a change

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somewhere in the Internet. A routing protocol is

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a combination of rules and procedures that lets

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routers in the Internet inform each other of
changes.

Topics discussed in this section:

Optimization
Intra-
Configuration of and
theInterdomain
server forRouting
Example
Distance Vector Routing and RIP
Link State Routing and OSPF
Path Vector Routing and BGP
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Autonomous systems
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Popular routing protocols

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Distance vector routing tables

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Initialization of tables in distance vector routing

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In distance vector routing, each node shares its

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routing table with its
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immediate neighbors periodically and when

there is a change.

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Updating in distance vector routing

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Two-node instability

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Three-node instability

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Example of a domain using RIP

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Concept of link state routing

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Link state knowledge

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Dijkstra algorithm
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Example of formation of shortest path tree

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https://meet.google.com/tsc-vvcn-ien

Routing table for node A

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Areas in an autonomous system

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Types of links

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Point-to-point link

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Transient link

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Stub link

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Example of an AS and its graphical representation in OSPF

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Initial routing tables in path vector routing

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Stabilized tables for three autonomous systems

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Internal and external BGP sessions

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 MULTICAST
ROUTING
PROTOCOLS
In this section, we discuss multicasting and
multicast routing protocols
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Topics discussed in this section:

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast

Applications
Multicast Routing
Routing Protocols
Internal and external BGP sessions
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Unicasting

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In unicasting, the router forwards the received

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packet through
only one of its interfaces.

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Multicasting
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In multicasting, the router may

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forward the received packet

through several of its interfaces.

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Multicasting versus multiple unicasting

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Emulation of multicasting through multiple

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unicasting is not efficient
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and may create long delays,

particularly with a large group.

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In unicast routing, each router in the domain has

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a table that defines
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a shortest path tree to possible destinations.

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Shortest path tree in unicast routing

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In multicast routing, each involved router needs

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to construct
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a shortest path tree for each group.

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Source-based tree approach

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In the source-based tree approach, each router

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needs to have one shortest path tree for each

group.

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Group-shared tree approach

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In the group-shared tree approach, only the core

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router, which has a shortest path tree for each

group, is involved in multicasting.

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Taxonomy of common multicast protocols

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Multicast link state routing uses the source-
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based tree approach.

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Flooding broadcasts packets, but creates loops in
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the systems.

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RPF eliminates the loop in the
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flooding process.

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Reverse path forwarding (RPF)

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Problem with RPF

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RPF Versus RPB

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 RPB creates a shortest path broadcast tree from
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the source to each destination.
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It guarantees that each destination receives one

and only one copy
of the packet.

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RPF, RPB, and RPM

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RPM adds pruning and grafting to RPB to create a

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multicast shortest
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path tree that supports dynamic membership

changes.

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Group-shared tree with rendezvous router

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Sending a multicast packet to the rendezvous router

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In CBT, the source sends the multicast packet

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(encapsulated in a unicast packet) to the core
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router. The core router decapsulates the packet

and forwards it to all interested interfaces.

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PIM-DM is used in a dense multicast

environment, such as a LAN.

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 PIM-DM uses RPF and pruning and grafting
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strategies to handle multicasting.

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However, it is independent of the underlying

unicast protocol.

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PIM-SM is used in a sparse multicast environment
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such as a WAN.

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PIM-SM is similar to CBT but uses a simpler
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procedure.

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Logical tunneling
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MBONE

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