Chapter 1: Introduction

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Contents


What Operating Systems Do

Computer-System Organization

Computer-System Architecture

Operating-System Structure

Operating-System Operations

Computing Environments

Open-Source Operating Systems

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.2 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives

To describe the basic organization of computer



systems

To provide a grand tour of the major components



of operating systems

To give an overview of the many types of



computing environments


To explore several open-source operating systems

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.3 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between



a user of a computer and the computer

hardware


Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving


user problems easier

Make the computer system convenient to use


Use the computer hardware in an efficient



manner

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.4 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components:
Hardware – provides basic computing resources


CPU, memory, I/O devices




Operating system

Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users


Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users

Word processors, compilers, web browsers,
database systems, video games


Users

People,
•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition machines, other computers•
• 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Four Components of a Computer System

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.6 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What Operating Systems Do


Depends on the point of view

Users want convenience, ease of use
Don’t care about resource utilization



But shared computer such as mainframe or
minicomputer must keep all users happy

Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have
dedicated resources but frequently use shared resources
from servers

Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for
usability and battery life

Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.7 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Definition


OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources


Decides between conflicting requests for efficient



and fair resource use


OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors


and improper use of the computer

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.8 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Definition (Cont.)


No universally accepted definition

“Everything a vendor ships when you order an



operating system” is good approximation

But varies wildly


“The one program running at all times on the



computer” is the kernel. Everything else is

either a system program (ships with the
operating system) or an application program.

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.9 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer Startup


bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as


firmware
Initializes all aspects of system


Loads operating system kernel and starts execution



•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.10 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Organization


Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through


common bus providing access to shared memory

Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for


memory cycles

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.11 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Operation


I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Each device controller is in charge of a particular



device type


Each device controller has a local buffer

CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local



buffers


I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its



operation by causing an interrupt

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.12 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service



routine generally, through the interrupt vector, which

contains the addresses of all the service routines


Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction

A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt



caused either by an error or a user request


An operating system is interrupt driven

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.13 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Interrupt Handling

The operating system preserves the state of the CPU



by storing registers and the program counter


Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
polling


vectored interrupt system



Separate segments of code determine what action



should be taken for each type of interrupt

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.14 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Direct Memory Access Structure


Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit
information at close to memory speeds


Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention


Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than
the one interrupt per byte

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.15 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 How a Modern Computer Works

•A von Neumann architecture

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.16 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Batch operating system

The users of batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits
it to the computer operator.

To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run
as a group. Thus, the programmers left their programs with the operator.
The operator then sorts programs into batches with similar requirements.

The problems with Batch Systems are following.

 Lack of interaction between the user and job.
 CPU is often idle, because the speeds of the mechanical I/O
devices are slower than CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.17 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Structure


Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times

Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute

A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory

One job selected and run via job scheduling

When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job


Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so
frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing

Response time should be < 1 second
Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is
termed as time-sharing.

Each user has at least one program executing in memory process

If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling

If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run

Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.18 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.19 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch
Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of
multiprogrammed batch systems, objective is to maximize
processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems objective is to
minimize response time.

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.20 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware


Software error or request creates exception or trap



Division by zero, request for operating system service



Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each



other or the operating system

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system



components
User mode and kernel mode


Mode bit provided by hardware



Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code



or kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in


kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to


user

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.21 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode


Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Set interrupt after specific period


Operating system decrements counter



When counter zero generate an interrupt



Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate



program that exceeds allotted time

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.22 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing


Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network

Logical extension of virtualization as based on virtualization

Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of VMs, PBs of
storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage

Many types

Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay

Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use

Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components

Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available
via the Internet (i.e. word processor)

Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application
use via the Internet (i.e a database server)

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e. storage available for backup use)

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.23 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

Cloud compute environments composed of traditional OSes, plus VMMs,



plus cloud management tools


Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls

Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.24 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems

Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers



Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-time OS



Use expanding


Many other special computing environments as well



Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS



Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints



Processing must be done within constraint



Correct operation only if constraints met



For example Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,



industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, and home-appliance



controllers, Air traffic

control system etc.


•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.25 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard
real-time systems secondary storage is limited or missing with data stored in ROM.
In these systems virtual memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real time systems are less restrictive. Critical real-time task gets priority over
other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have
limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example,
Multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers etc.

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.26 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors
to serve multiple real time application and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed
among the processors accordingly to which
one can perform each job most efficiently.

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.27 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Distributed operating System

The advantages of distributed systems are following.


With resource sharing facility user at one site may be able to
use the resources available at another.

Speedup the exchange of data with one another via
electronic mail.

If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can
potentially continue operating.

Better service to the customers.

Reduction of the load on the host computer.

Reduction of delays in data processing.

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.28 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Network operating System

Network Operating System runs on a server and and provides server the capability to
manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file
and printer access among multiple

computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to oth
networks. Examples of network operating systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.29 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just



binary closed-source

Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM)



movement

Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU



Public License (GPL)

Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS



X), and many more

Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox (open


source and free on many platforms - http://www.virtualbox.com)


Use to run guest operating systems for exploration

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition • 1.30 • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 1

•Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on • Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013