Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics:

Tabular and Graphical Presentations

I. Summarize the Data for One Variable at a

Time:
• Displaying Quantitative Data
• Displaying Qualitative (Categorical) Data

II. Display Relationship Between Two

Variables:
• Crosstabulation and Scatter Diagram
Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics:
Tabular and Graphical Presentations

I. Summarize the Data for One Variable at a

Time:
• Displaying Quantitative Data
• Displaying Qualitative (Categorical) Data

II. Display Relationship Between Two

Variables:
• Crosstabulation and Scatter Diagram
 I. Display One Variable: Quantitative
Data

Summarizing Quantitative Data

Tabular:
• Frequency Distribution
• Relative Frequency and Percent
Frequency Distributions
• Cumulative Distributions
Graphical:
• Histogram
• Ogive

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 Recall: Discrete vs. Continuous
Data
Discrete data are values based on
observations that can be counted and are
typically represented by whole numbers (how
many)
• something that has been counted
• take on whole numbers such as 0, 1, 2, 3

Continuous data are values that can take on

any real numbers, including numbers that
contain decimal points (how much)
• usually measured rather than counted

Let’s focus on discrete data first

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 Frequency Distribution
A frequency distribution shows the number of
data observations that fall into specific intervals

Example: Number of iPads sold per day

class

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 Relative and Percentage Frequency
Distributions
Relative frequency distributions display the
proportion of observations of each class relative
to the total number of observations
• shows the fraction of observations in each
class
• found by dividing each frequency by the total
number of observations
• the fractions in a relative frequency
distribution add up to 1.00

Percentage frequency distributions display

the percentage of observations of each class
relative to the total number of observations
• the percentages add up to 100
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 Relative and Percentage Frequency
Distributions

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 Example: Relative Frequency
Distributions

Example:

Two iPads were sold on 28% of the

days

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 Cumulative Frequency Distributions

A cumulative frequency distribution shows

the number of items that are less than or equal
to the upper limit of each class

A cumulative relative frequency distribution

shows the proportion of items that are less than
or equal to the upper limits of each class

A cumulative percent frequency distribution

shows the percentage of items that are less than
or equal to the upper limit of each class

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 Cumulative Frequency Distributions

• The last entry in a cumulative frequency

distribution always equals the total number
of observations
• The last entry in a cumulative relative
frequency distribution always equals 1.00
• The last entry in a cumulative percent
frequency distribution always equals 100

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 Example: Cumulative Relative
Frequency Distributions
Example:

Three iPads or less were sold on 80% of the business

days

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 Histogram to Graph a Frequency
Distribution
A histogram is a graph showing the number of
observations in each class of a frequency
distribution:
1. The variable of interest is placed on the
horizontal axis
2. A rectangle is drawn above each class interval
with its height corresponding to the interval’s
frequency, relative frequency, or percent
frequency
3. A histogram has no natural separation between
rectangles of adjacent classes

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 The Shape of Histograms

Symmetric
• the right side is the mirror
image of the left side of the
distribution

Still symmetric, but

wider spread

Not symmetric

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 Cumulative Distributions Plot(Ogive)

• The data values are shown on the horizontal

axis
• Shown on the vertical axis are the:
cumulative frequencies, or cumulative
relative frequencies, or cumulative percent
frequencies
• The frequency (one of the above) of each
class is plotted as a point
• The plotted points are connected by straight
lines

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 Example: Cumulative Distributions

Propane mileage (in miles per gallon) for 50 taxis:

cumulative relative frequencies

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 Frequency Distribution Using Grouped
Continuous Quantitative Data

Ideally, the number of classes in a

frequency distribution should be between 5
and 20
• Some data sets, particularly those with
continuous data, require several values to
be grouped together in a single class
• This grouping prevents having too many
classes in the frequency distribution, which
can make it difficult to detect patterns

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 Number of Classes

One method to determine the number of

classes in a frequency distribution is the rule
2k  n
where k = Number of classes
n = Number of data points
• Find the lowest value of k that satisfies
the rule
E.g. suppose n = 50
25 = 32 < 50 (k = 5 is too small)
26 = 64 > 50 (k = 6 is a good choice)
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 Class Width

Once k is known, the width of each class can be

found
Maximum data value  Minimum data value
Estimated class width 
k

• Use equal width across all classes

• The width is the range of numbers to put
into each class
• Round this estimate to a useful whole
number that makes the frequency
distribution more readable
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 Note on Number of Classes and Class
Width
• There is no one correct answer for the number
of classes and class width
• The goal is to create a histogram to clearly
and usefully show the pattern in the data
• Often there is more than one acceptable way
to accomplish this
• Ultimately, the analyst uses judgment to
determine the combination of the number of
classes and class width that provides the best
frequency distribution for summarizing the
data
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Class Boundaries
Class boundaries represent the minimum and
maximum values for each class

Choose class boundaries that are easy to read

 
3 to less than 6 minutes vs. 3.21 to less than
6.21 minutes
6 to less than 9 minutes 6.21 to less than 9.21
minutes
 Class Frequencies

Find class frequencies by counting and

recording the number of observations in
each class
Example:

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 Rules for Classes for Grouped
Data
1. Equal-size classes. All classes in the frequency
distribution must be of equal width
2. Mutually exclusive classes. Class boundaries
cannot overlap
3. Include all data values. Make sure all data
values are accounted for in the total row of the
frequency distribution
4. Avoid empty classes. It is undesirable for a
histogram to display a class so narrow that there
are no observations in it
5. Avoid open-ended classes (if possible). That
is, do not use ± ∞ as lower or upper limit, because
these violate the first rule of equal class sizes

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 The Consequences of
Too Few or Too Many Classes-(data presentation)

Wide classes results in few class intervals

• Can obscure important patterns
• Gives a “blocky” distribution graph
• Summarizes the data too much
• Tells us little about the true distribution shape

Too many narrow classes in a histogram also has

consequences
• Results in a “jagged” histogram
• Some classes may be empty
• Does not summarize the data enough

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 Read By Yourself: Stem-and-Leaf
Display
• A stem-and-leaf display
shows both the rank
order and shape of the
distribution of the data
• It is similar to a
histogram on its side, but
it has the advantage of
showing the actual data
values
• The first digits of each
data item are arranged
to the left of a vertical
line
• To the right of the
vertical line we record
the last digit for each Source: World Health Organization Global Database on Body-
item in rank order Mass Index. (Last accessed November 17, 2012)
Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics:
Tabular and Graphical Presentations

I. Summarize the Data for One Variable at a

Time:
• Displaying Quantitative Data
• Displaying Qualitative (Categorical)
Data

II. Display Relationship Between Two

Variables:
• Crosstabulation and Scatter Diagram
 Displaying Qualitative Data

• Qualitative data are values that are

categorical
• Can be nominal or ordinal measurement
level
• Describe aQualitative
Summarizing characteristic,
Data such as
• gender
Tabular: or level of Distribution,
Frequency education Relative
Frequency Distribution, Percent
Frequency Distribution
• Graphical: Bar Chart, Pareto Diagram,
and Pie Chart

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 Frequency Distributions

Frequency distributions:
 Indicates the number of occurrences of
various categories
 Techniques are similar to frequency
distributions with quantitative data
 Can construct relative and percent
frequency distribution

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 Example: Frequency, Relative, and
Percent Distributions

Guests staying at Marada Inn were asked to rate the

quality of their accommodations as being excellent,
above average, average, below average, or poor.
The ratings provided by a sample of 20 guests are:

Below Average Average Above Average

Above Average Above Average Above Average
Above Average Below Average Below Average
Average Poor Poor
Above Average Excellent Above Average
Average Above Average Average
Above Average Average

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 Example: Frequency, Relative, and
Percent Distributions
Frequency, relative, and percent distribution of the
rating of Marada Inn accommodations:
Relative Percent
Rating Frequency Frequency Frequency
Poor 2 .10 10
Below Average 3 .15 15
Average 5 .25 25
Above Average 9 .45 45
Excellent 1 .05 5
Total 20 1.00 100

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 Bar Charts

• Can be arranged in a vertical or horizontal

orientation
• On one axis (usually, horizontal), we specify
the labels that are used for each of the
classes
• A frequency, relative frequency, or percent
frequency scale can be used for the other
axis (usually, vertical)
• Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each
class label, we extend the height
appropriately
• The bars are separated to emphasize the
fact that each class is a separate category
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Bar Charts
Horizontal bar chart Vertical bar
chart

Can display multiple series with clustered or stacked bar

charts:
 Pareto Diagram

• In quality control, bar charts are used to

identify the most important causes of
problems
• When the bars are arranged in descending
order of height from left to right (with the
most frequently occurring cause appearing
first) the bar chart is called a Pareto
diagram
• This diagram is named for its founder,
Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist
• 80% of a project's benefit can be achieved by doing
20% of the work
• 80% of problems can be traced to 20% of the causes
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 Example: Pareto Diagram

the Institute for Healthcare Improvement identified

three vital types of errors discovered during
surgical set-up.

80% of problems can be

traced to 20% of the
causes.

*https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/pareto-analysis.asp
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 Pie Charts

Pie charts are a tool for comparing

proportions for categorical data
Each segment of the pie represents the
relative frequency of one category
• All categories in the data set must be
included in the pie
• Use a pie chart to compare the relative sizes
of all possible categories (via degrees of
slices)
• Bar charts are more useful when you want
to highlight the actual data values and
when the classes combined don’t form a
whole
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 Example: Pie Charts
Example:

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 Pie Charts
• For data with many categories, most
statisticians recommend that classes with
smaller frequencies be grouped into an
aggregate class called “others”

Example:

Source: IDC, The Economist (2012)

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Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics:
Tabular and Graphical Presentations

I. Summarize the Data for One Variable at a

Time:
• Displaying Quantitative Data
• Displaying Qualitative (Categorical) Data

II. Display Relationship Between Two

Variables:
• Crosstabulation and Scatter Diagram
 II. Relationship Between Two
Variables: Crosstabulation
A crosstabulation is a tabular summary
of data for two variables
Crosstabulation can be used when:
• one variable is qualitative and the other is
quantitative,
• both variables are qualitative, or
• both variables are quantitative
The left and top margin labels define the
classes for the two variables

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Example: Crosstabulation
Example: Finger Lakes Homes
The number of Finger Lakes homes sold for each style
and price for the past two years is shown below
Quantitativ Categorical Frequency distribution
e variable variable for the price range
variable
Price Home Style
Range Colonial Log Total
Split A-Frame
< $200,000 18 6 19 1255
> $200,000 12 14 16 345
Total 30 20 35 100
15

Frequency distribution
for
the home style
Crosstabulation: Row or Column
Percentages
Converting the entries in the table into row percentages
or column percentages can provide additional insight
about the relationship between the two variables

Example: Row Percentages (Finger Lakes Homes)

Price Home Style

Range Colonial Log Total
Split A-Frame
< $200,000 32.73 10.91 34.55 100
21.82
> $200,000 26.67 31.11 35.56 100
6.67
Note: row totals are actually 100.01 due to rounding.

(Colonial and ≥ $200K)/(All ≥ $200K) x 100 = (12/45) x 100

Crosstabulation: Row or Column
Percentages

Example: Column Percentages (Finger Lakes

Homes)

Price Home Style

Range Colonial Log Split A-Frame
< $200,000 60.00 30.00 54.29 80.00
> $200,000 40.00 70.00 45.71 20.00
Total 100 100 100 100

(Colonial and ≥ $200K)/(All Colonial) x 100 = (12/30) x 100

 Simpson’s Paradox

Data in two or more crosstabulations are often

aggregated to produce a summary crosstabulation.

We must be careful in drawing conclusions about

the relationship between the two variables in the
aggregated crosstabulation.

In some cases the conclusions based upon an

aggregated crosstabulation can be completely
reversed if we look at the unaggregated data. The
reversal of conclusions based on aggregate and
unaggregated data is called Simpson’s paradox.

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Simpson’s Paradox
One of the best-known examples of Simpson's
paradox is a study of gender bias among
graduate school admissions to
University of California, Berkeley. The admission
figures for the fall of 1973 showed that men
applying were more likely than women to be
admitted, and the difference was so large that it
was unlikely to be due to chance.
Simpson’s Paradox
However, when examining the individual
departments, it appeared that six out of 85
departments were significantly biased against men,
whereas four were significantly biased against
women. In fact, the pooled and corrected data
showed a "small but statistically significant bias in
favor of women". The data from the six largest
departments are listed below, the top two
departments by number of applicants for each
gender.
 Scatter Diagram and Trendline
• A scatter diagram is a graphical presentation of
the relationship between two quantitative variables
• One variable is shown on the horizontal axis and
the other variable is shown on the vertical axis
• The general pattern of the plotted points suggests
the overall relationship between the variables
• A trendline provides an approximation of the
relationship
• Usually the first step to do in the analysis of the
relationship of two variables

 Will discuss more in correlation and simple linear

regression
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 Example: Scatter Diagram
Example: countries in the northern latitudes, which are mostly rich,
will see smaller temperature fluctuations and less affected by
climate change

Source: Economist.com (Last access Jan 6, 2019)

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 Types of relationships

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 Example: Scatter Diagram and
Trendline
Example: the Phillips curve

Source: Economist.com (Last access Apr 13, 2018)

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Summary