Session-1

Networking Basics,
Physical and Data
Link Layer
Session delivered by:
Dr. Rinki Sharma
Dr. Jyothi A P
Mr. Nithin Rao R

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Session Objectives

• To understand the basics of data communication

• To understand the concepts of Networks, An Internet and

Protocols and standards

• To study the layer operations of TCP/IP protocol stack

• To study the Ethernet Protocol and Ethernet Network

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Session Topics
• Network Model
• Data Communication
• Five Components of Data Communication
• Benefits of Layering
• OSI 7 Layer Functions
• 802.3 MAC frame
• Ethernet Address
• Ethernet encapsulation of IP packet
• Flow control techniques
• Attachment unit interface
33
Session Topics
• Medium Attachment Unit
• Ethernet Standards
• Bridges and Switches
• MAC Sublayer
• Physical Layer
• Physical Layer Implementation
• Bridged Ethernet
• Switched Ethernet
• Full-Duplex Ethernet

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Data Communication

• Data communication is the transfer of data from one device to

another via some form of transmission medium.

• A data communications’ system must transmit data to the correct

destination in an accurate and timely manner.

• The transmission of data from one point to another over

communication channels

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Data Communication
• Interface
• Signal generation
• Exchange management
• Error Detection & Correction
• Flow Control
• Addressing & routing
• Recovery of message
• Message formatting
• Security
• Network Management
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Five Components of Data Communication

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Network Hardware
• Local Area Networks

• Metropolitan Area Networks

• Wide Area Networks

• Wireless Networks

• Home Networks

• Internetworks
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Broadcast Networks
• Types of transmission technology
• Broadcast links

• Point-to-point links

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Broadcast Networks
• Classification by scale

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Network Models

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 Benefits of Layering

• Segmentation of high-level from low-level issues. Complex problems can

be broken into smaller more manageable pieces.

• Since the specification of a layer says nothing about its implementation,

the implementation details of a layer are hidden (abstracted) from other
layers.

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OSI 7 layers

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TCP/IP Network Model

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Difference Between OSI model & TCP/IP model

OSI TCP / IP
Application (Layer7)

Presentation (Layer6) Application

Session (Layer 5)

Transport (Layer 4) Transport

Network (Layer 3) Internet

Data Link (Layer 2)

Subnet
Physical (Layer 1)

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OSI and TCP/IP Model

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Brief Description of TCP/IP
Layers

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Peer-to-Peer Process

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Exchange of Data using
TCP/IP

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Difference Between OSI model
& TCP/IP model

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Various components in network

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Physical Layer

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Position of the physical layer

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Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.

Physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a

bit stream over a physical medium.

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Duties of Physical Layer

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Duties of Physical Layer

• Bit to signal Transformation:

• The logical pipe under the physical layer is the transmission media(cable or
air).
• Since this medium cannot carry bits, needs to represent the bits by a signal,
electromagnetic energy that can propagate through a medium.

• Bit Rate Control:

• Transmission medium determines the upper limit of the data rate, the
physical layer is the controller.
• Design of the physical layer hardware and software determines the data rate.

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Duties of Physical Layer
• Bit Synchronization:
• The timing of the bit transfer is crucial in data communications.
• The physical layer governs the synchronization of the bits by providing clocking
mechanisms that control both the sender and the receiver.

• Multiplexing:
• It is a process of dividing a link, the physical medium, into logical channels for
better efficiency.

• Switching:
• Switching in data communications can be done in several ways. In circuit
switching a dedicated link is established between source and destination.
Internet uses packet switching.
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Transmission medium and physical layer

Transmission media are actually located below the physical

layer and directly controlled by the physical layer.

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Transmission medium and physical layer

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Twisted Pair Cable

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Coaxial Cable

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Fiber Optic Cable

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Unguided Media: Wireless

• Radio Waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared

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Unguided Media: Wireless

Radio waves are omni directional. Its wave band is under

government regulation.

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Physical Layer Functions
• The Physical Layer has two responsibilities; it sends bits and receives
bits.

• The Physical layer specifications specify the electrical, mechanical,

procedural, and functional requirements for activating, maintaining,
and deactivating a physical link between end systems.

• All wiring, power, cabling and connections are part of the physical
layer. Without the physical layer functioning properly none of the
upper layers will respond correctly.

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Physical Layer Functionalities
• Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable.

• Defines cables, cards, and physical aspects.

• Defines NIC (Network Interface Card) attachments to

hardware, how cable is attached to NIC.

• Defines techniques to transfer bit stream to cable.

• Physical layer specifications define characteristics such as

voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors.

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Network Devices in Physical
Layer
• Multiplexers

• Multiplexer operate at the physical layer (OSI layer one), taking data bits from
several devices, and interleaving this data onto a single physical link.

• Such methods as Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) or Frequency Division

Multiplexing (FDM) may be used to maximize the number of devices that can
share a single link.

• Multiplexer “manage the bandwidth” available on the serial link, and, hence,
are often called bandwidth managers.

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Multiplexers

• Multiplexing is the simultaneous transmission of

multiple signals across a single data link.

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Categories of Multiplexing

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Frequency Division
Multiplexing

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Wave Division Multiplexing

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Time Division Multiplexing

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Circuit Switching
• (a) Circuit switching
• (b) Packet switching

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Message Switching
• (a) Circuit switching
• (b) Message switching
• (c) Packet switching

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Packet Switching
• A comparison of circuit switched and packet-switched networks.

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Network Devices

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Network Devices in Physical
Layer

• Repeaters

• Repeaters operate at the physical layer (OSI layer one),

simply extending the physical characteristics of the
network by regenerating signals so that the optimum
performance in terms of signal quality and distance can
be achieved.

• Repeaters can sometimes also provide media

conversion from one type to another, for example, from
fiber optics to copper.

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Repeaters

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Repeaters
• A repeater regenerates the received signals and then retransmits the regenerated (or
conditioned) signals on other segments.

• To pass data through the repeater in a usable fashion from one segment to the next, the packets
and the Logical Link Control (LLC) protocols must be the same on the each segment.

• This means that a repeater will not enable communication, for example, between an 802.3
segment (Ethernet) and an 802.5 segment (Token Ring).

• That is, they cannot translate an Ethernet packet into a Token Ring packet. In other words,
repeaters do not translate anything.

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Hubs

• To join a group of computers with an Ethernet hub,

one connects an Ethernet cable (that has an RJ-45
connector attached) into the hub, then connect
the other end of the cable each computer's
Network Interface Cards (NICs).

• Hubs require external power and can be

connected to other hubs, switches, or routers.

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Hubs

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Hubs

• The most basic Ethernet hubs support 10 Mbps speeds. Newer hubs support 100 Mbps Ethernet.

• To help users move ahead to the newer technology while still supporting the old, some hubs
support both 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps data rates. These are so-called "dual-speed" or "10/100"
hubs.

• A common differentiator in hubs is the number of ports they support.

• Four- and five-port hubs are most common in home networks, but eight- and 16-port hubs can be
found in some home and small office environments.

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NIC (Network Interface Card)
• A NIC or Network Interface Card is a circuit board or chip, which
allows the computer to communicate to other computers on a
Network.

• This board when connected to a cable or other method of transferring

data such as infrared can share resources, information and computer
hardware.

• Local or Wide area networks are generally used for large businesses
as well as are beginning to be found in homes as home users begin to
have more then one computer.

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Network Interface Card (NIC)

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Network Interface Card (NIC)

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Data Link Layer

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Sublayers of Data Link Layer
• The LLC sub-layer acts as an interface between the Media Access
Control (MAC) sublayer and the network layer

• The LLC sublayer is primarily concerned with:

• Multiplexing protocols transmitted over the MAC layer (when transmitting)
and decoding them (when receiving).
• Providing flow and error control

• The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-

layer, also known as the Medium Access Control, is a sublayer of the
Data Link Layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model (layer 2)

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Sublayers of Data Link Layer
• It provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that
make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to
communicate within a multi-point network, typically a local area
network (LAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN).

• The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a Medium

Access Controller.

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Data Link Layer

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Data Link Layer

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Framing
Character Count Technique
• A character stream
• (a) Without errors
• (b) With one error.

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Framing
Byte Stuffing Technique
• (a) A frame delimited by flag bytes
• (b) Four examples of byte sequences before and after stuffing

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Framing
Bit stuffing Technique
• (a) The original data
• (b) The data as they appear on the line
• (c) The data as they are stored in receiver’s memory after destuffing

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Three generations of Ethernet

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PLS (Physical Layer
Signaling)

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MAU (Medium Attachment Unit) (Transceiver)

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Categories of Traditional
Ethernet

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Station Connected To Medium
Using 10Base5

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Fast Ethernet Implementations

• 100Base-TX: Uses two pairs of twisted pair cable

• 100BASE-FX: 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over fiber
• 100BASE-T4: Uses all four pairs of twisted pair cable

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 Fast Ethernet Implementations

• 100BASE-T: A term for any of the three standard for 100 Mbit/s
Ethernet over twisted pair cable. Includes 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4
and 100BASE-T2.

• 100BASE-TX: Uses two pairs, but requires Category 5 cable. Similar star-
shaped configuration to 10BASE-T. 100 Mbit/s.

• 100BASE-T4: 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over Category 3 cabling (as used for
10BASE-T installations). Uses all four pairs in the cable. Now obsolete, as
Category 5 cabling is the norm. Limited to half-duplex.

• 100BASE-T2: No products exist. 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over Category 3

cabling. Supports full-duplex, and uses only two pairs. It is functionally
equivalent to 100BASE-TX, but supports old cable.

• 100BASE-FX: 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over fibre.

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Physical Layer in Gigabit
Ethernet

• GMII is not an external physical component. It is primarily logical.

• RS sends 8 – bit parallel data to PHY sublayer via GMII interface

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Gigabit Ethernet
Implementations

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Gigabit Ethernet
Implementations
• 1000BASE-T: 1 Gbit/s over Category 5e copper
cabling.

• 1000BASE-SX: 1 Gbit/s over fiber.

• 1000BASE-LX: 1 Gbit/s over fiber. Optimized for

longer distances over single-mode fiber.

• 1000BASE-CX: A short-haul solution (up to 25 m) for

running 1 Gbit/s Ethernet over special copper cable.
Predates 1000BASE-T, and now obsolete.
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802.3 MAC Frame

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802.3 MAC Frame

• In Preamble, first field of 802.3 frame contains 7

bytes(56bits) of Alternating 0s and 1s that alerts the
receiving system to the coming frame and enables it
to synchronize its input timing.

• Start frame delimiter(SFD) Second field(1 byte

10101011) signals the beginning of the frame.

• Destination address(DA) The DA field is 6 bytes and

contains the physical address of the destination
station or stations to receive the packet.

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802.3 MAC Frame

• Source address(SA) SA field is also 6 bytes and

contains the physical Address of the sender of the
packet.

• Length /Type: This field is defined as a length or

type field. If the value of the field is less than 1518,
it is a length field and defines the length of the
data field that follows.

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802.3 MAC Frame
• Versions 1.0 and 2.0 of the Digital/Intel/Xerox (DIX) Ethernet
specification have a 16-bit sub-protocol label field called the type.

• The new IEEE 802.3 Ethernet specification replaced that with a 16-bit
length field, with the MAC header followed by an IEEE 802.2 logical
link control (LLC) header.

• The maximum length of a frame was 1518 bytes for classical Ethernet
v2 and IEEE802.3 frames.

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802.3 MAC Frame
• The two formats were eventually unified by the convention that
values of that field between 64 and 1518 indicated the use of the new
802.3 Ethernet format with a length field,

• While values of 1536 decimal (0600 hexadecimal) and greater

indicated the use of the original DIX or Ethernet II frame format with
an EtherType sub-protocol identifier. E.g., 0800 for IP packet.

• This convention allows software to determine whether a frame is an

Ethernet II frame or an IEEE 802.3 frame, allowing the coexistence of
both standards on the same physical medium.

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Minimum & Maximum Length

• Ethernet has used 1500 byte frame sizes since it was created
(around 1980). To maintain backward compatibility, 100
Mbps ethernet used the same size, and today "standard"
gigabit ethernet is also using 1500 byte frames

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Minimum & Maximum Length
• The time it takes for a signal to propagate from one end of the
network to the other is known as the propagation delay

• In worst-case collision scenario Node A’s frame must travel all the way
to Node B, and then the collision signal must travel all the way from
Node B back to Node A. This time is known as the slot time.

• An Ethernet node must be transmitting a frame for the slot time for a
collision with that frame to be detected. This is the reason for the
minimum Ethernet frame size.

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Ethernet Addresses in
Hexadecimal Notation

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Unicast and Multicast
Addresses

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Hardware/Ethernet Multicasting
• When a computer joins a multicast group, it needs to be able to distinguish between normal
unicasts (which are packets directed to one computer or one MAC address) and multicasts.

• With hardware multicasting, the network card is configured, via its drivers, to watch out for
particular MAC addresses (in this case, multicast MAC addresses) apart from its own.

• When the network card picks up a packet which has a destination MAC that matches any of the
multicast MAC addresses, it will pass it to the upper layers for further processing.

• Ethernet uses the last bit of the first octet to distinguish conventional unicast addresses from
multicast addresses. A unicast would have this bit set to ZERO (0), whereas a multicast would
be set to ONE (1)

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Ethernet Encapsulation of IP
Packet

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Ethernet Header Structure

• An Ethernet interface receives frames destined for its

unicast hardware address and for the Ethernet
broadcast address

• The Ethernet CRC is not generally available. It is

computed and checked by the interface hardware,
which discards frames that arrive with an invalid CRC

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 Flow and Error Control
• Flow Control:
• Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data
that the sender can send before waiting for acknowledgment

• Error Control:
• Error control in the data link layer is based on automatic repeat request,
which is the retransmission of data

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Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Normal operation

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Stop-and-Wait ARQ, lost frame

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Stop-and-Wait ARQ, lost ACK frame

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 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
• In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, numbering frames prevents the retaining of
duplicate frames

• Numbered acknowledgments are needed if an acknowledgment is

delayed and the next frame is lost.

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Piggybacking

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Sender Sliding Window

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Receiver Sliding Window

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Sequence Numbers
• Frames from sending station are numbered sequentially

• We need to include the sequence number of each frame in the header

• If we ‘m’ bits for sequence number, sequence number will range from 0 to 2 m – 1

• Therefore we have 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,…

• Sender sliding window size will be 2m – 1

• Receiver sliding window size will always be 1

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Control Variables

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Go-Back-N ARQ, normal operation

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Go-Back-N ARQ, lost frame

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Go-Back-N ARQ: sender window size

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Selective Repeat ARQ, sender and receiver
windows

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Selective Repeat ARQ, lost frame

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0
Selective Repeat ARQ & Go Back N ARQ

• In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the sender window

must be less than 2m; the size of the receiver window
is always 1
• In Selective Repeat ARQ, the size of the sender and
receiver window must be at most one-half of 2m

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Selective Repeat ARQ, Sender Window Size

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Error Detection and Correction

• Single-Bit Error
• In a single-bit error, only one bit in the data unit has
changed.

• Burst Error
• A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit
have changed

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Single-Bit Error

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Burst Error

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Error Detection

• Redundancy
• Parity Check
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Checksum

Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means

adding extra bits for detecting errors at the destination

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Redundancy

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Detection Methods

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Even-Parity Concept

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Parity Check

• In parity check, a parity bit is added to every data

unit so that the total number of 1s is even
(or odd for odd-parity).

• Simple parity check can detect all single-bit errors.

It can detect burst errors only if the total number
of errors in each data unit is odd.

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Two-dimensional Parity

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CRC Generator and Checker

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Binary Division in a CRC
Generator

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Binary Division in CRC
Checker

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CRC Generator Polynomial

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Polynomial Representing a
Divisor

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Standard Polynomials

Name Polynomial Application

CRC-8 x8 + x 2 + x + 1 ATM header

CRC-10 x10 + x9 + x5 + x4 + x 2 + 1 ATM AAL

ITU-16 x16 + x12 + x5 + 1 HDLC

x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 +

ITU-32 LANs
x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1

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Standard Polynomial

It is obvious that we cannot choose x (binary 10) or x2 + x

(binary 110) as the polynomial because both are divisible
by x. However, we can choose x + 1 (binary 11) because it
is not divisible by x, but is divisible by x + 1. We can also
choose x2 + 1 (binary 101) because it is divisible by x + 1
(binary division).

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Standard Polynomial

The CRC-12

x12 + x11 + x3 + x + 1
which has a degree of 12, will detect all burst errors
affecting an odd number of bits, will detect all burst
errors with a length less than or equal to 12, and will
detect, 99.97 percent of the time, burst errors with a
length of 12 or more.

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Checksum

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Data Unit and Checksum

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 Data Unit and Checksum

The sender follows these steps:

•The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
•All sections are added using one’s complement to get the
sum.
•The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum.
•The checksum is sent with the data.

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 Data Unit and Checksum

The receiver follows these steps:

•The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
•All sections are added using one’s complement
to get the sum.
•The sum is complemented.
•If the result is zero, the data are accepted:
otherwise, rejected.

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Multiple-Access Protocols

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Random Access
• MA
• CSMA
• CSMA/CD
• CSMA/CA

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Evolution of Random-Access Methods

• Where as MA station sends a frame when it has a

frame to send.

• CSMA (carrier sense multiple access) method , a

station must listen to the medium prior to sending data
onto the line.

• CSMA/CD adds a procedure to handle a collision.

• CSMA/CA avoids collision, station uses one of the

persistence strategies
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ALOHA Network

ALOHA: The original random multiple access method in which

in which a station can send a frame any time it has one to send.

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Procedure for ALOHA Protocol

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Collision in CSMA

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Persistence Strategies

• 1 persistent: sends with probability 1 (increases chances of collision)

• P persistent: sends with probability 1-p i.e., if p=0.2 sends 20 percent of

times, refrains from sending 80 percent of times.

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CSMA/CD Procedure

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CSMA/CA Procedure

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Control Access

• Reservation
• Polling
• Token Passing

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Reservation Access Method

In this method, station needs to make a reservation before

sending data.

Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation

frame precedes the data frame sent in that interval

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Select

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Poll

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Token-Passing Network

In this method, a station is authorized to send data when it receives a special

frame called a token.

In this method, stations are arranged around a ring. Each station has a
predecessor and a successor.

Frames are coming from the predecessor and going to the successor.

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Token-Passing Procedure

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Network Devices

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Network With and Without a
Bridge

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Bridges

• A Bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs.

• However, a bridge can also divide a network to isolate traffic or

problems.

• For example, if the volume of traffic from one or two computers or a

single department is flooding the network with data and slowing
down entire operation, a bridge can isolate those computers or that
department.

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 Bridges
• Bridges simply pass all protocols along the network

• Because all protocols pass across the bridges, it is up to the individual

computers to determine which protocols they can recognize

• A bridge works on the principle that each network node has its own
address

• A bridge forwards the packets based on the address of the particular

destination node

• As traffic passes through the bridge, information about the computer

addresses is then stored in the bridge's RAM

• The bridge will then use this RAM to build a routing table based on source
addresses
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Collision Domains

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Switches
• A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple
computers together within one Local Area Network (LAN)
Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link
Layer) of the OSI model.

• Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but

a switch generally contains more "intelligence" (and a slightly
higher price tag) than a hub.

• Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data

packets as they are received, determining the source and
destination device of that packet, and forwarding it
appropriately.

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Switches

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Switches

• By delivering each message only to the connected device it was

intended for, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and
offers generally better performance than a hub.

• As with hubs, Ethernet implementations of network switches are the

most common. Mainstream Ethernet network switches support either
10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, or 10/100 Mbps Ethernet standards.

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Switched Ethernet

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Full-duplex Switched Ethernet

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Switches
• Different models of network switches support
differing numbers of connected devices.

• Most consumer-grade network switches provide

either four or eight connections for Ethernet
devices.

• Switches can be connected to each other. Such

"daisy chaining" allows progressively larger
number of devices to join the same LAN.

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Backbone Networks
• A backbone network allows several LANs to be connected

• In a backbone network, no station is directly connected to the backbone;

the stations are part of the LAN and the backbone connects the LANs

• These LANs can be connected to the to the backbone network through

network devices such as bridges, switches, routers etc.

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Backbone Networks

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Summary
• The term network usually means a set of computers and peripherals
(printers, modems, plotters, scanners, and so on) that are connected
together by some medium.

• Data communication is the transfer of data from one device to

another via some form of transmission medium.

• As in network topology. The geometric physical or electrical

configuration describing a local communication network; the shape or
arrangement of a system.

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Summary
• Flow control is the regulation of the sender’s data rate so that the receiver
buffer does not become overwhelmed.

• Error control is both error detection and error correction.

• The Point to Point(PPP) was designed to provide a dedicated line for users who
need Internet access via a telephone line or cable TV connection.

• Ethernet is most widely used local area network protocol

• Common baseband implementation of 10 Mbps Ethernet are 10Base5,

10Base2, 10BaseT and 10BaseFL
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Summary
• Repeater is a connecting device that operates in physical layer of the
internet

• Hub is a multiport repeater

• Bridge is a connecting device that operates in physical as well as in

data link layer

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References
• Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communication and Networking, 2nd
edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2000

• Behrouz A. Forouzan, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, 3rd edition, Tata McGraw-

Hill, 2007

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