Sensing

Introduction to Internet of 1
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 Definition
 A sensor detects (senses) changes in the ambient conditions
or in the state of another device or a system, and forwards or
processes this information in a certain manner [1].

“A device which detects or measures a physical property and

records, indicates, or otherwise responds to it” [2].
References: ‐ Oxford Dictionary
1. http://www.b/definition/sensor.html
2. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sensor

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Sensors

 They perform some input functions by sensing or feeling the

physical changes in characteristics of a system in response to a
stimuli.
 For example heat is converted to electrical signals in a
temperature sensor, or atmospheric pressure is converted to
electrical signals in a barometer.

Introduction to Internet of 3
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Transducers
 Transducers convert or transduce energy of one kind into
another.
 For example, in a sound system, a microphone (input device)
converts sound waves into electrical signals for an amplifier to
amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device)
converts these electrical signals back into sound waves.

Introduction to Internet of 4
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 Sensor vs. Transducer
 The word “Transducer” is the collective term used for both
Sensors which can be used to sense a wide range of different
energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant
energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc., and Actuators which
can be used to switch voltages or currents [1].

References:
1. http://www.electronics‐tutorials.ws/io/io_1.html

Introduction to Internet of 5
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Sensor Features
 It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A
temperature sensor senses the ambient temperature of a
room.)
 It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered
in its application (e.g., A temperature sensor does not bother
about light or pressure while sensing the temperature.)
 It does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring
the temperature does not reduce or increase the
temperature).

Introduction to Internet of 6
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Sensor Resolution
 The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect
in the quantity that it is measuring.
 The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the
smallest resolution the digital output it is capable of
processing.
 The more is the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is its
precision.
 A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution.

Introduction to Internet of 7
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Sensor Classes

Based on Based on
Output Data type

Analog Scalar

Vector/
Digital
Multimedia

Introduction to Internet of 8
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Analog Sensors
 Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage
which is generally proportional to the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc. are all analog quantities as they tend to be
continuous in nature.
 For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple (e.g. in geysers) which continuously
responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or
cooled down.

Introduction to Internet of 9
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Digital
Sensors
 Digital Sensors produce discrete digital output signals or voltages
that are a digital representation of the quantity being measured.
 Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a logic
“1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or “OFF”).
 Digital signal only produces discrete (non‐continuous) values, which
may be output as a single “bit” (serial transmission), or by
combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output (parallel
transmission).

Introduction to Internet of 10
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Scalar Sensors
 Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc.
are all scalar quantities as only their magnitude is sufficient to
convey an information.
 For example, the temperature of a room can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple, which responds to temperature
changes irrespective of the orientation of the sensor or its
direction.

Introduction to Internet of 11
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Vector Sensors
 Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation
of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration,
orientation, etc. are all vector quantities, as only their magnitude is
not sufficient to convey the complete information.
 For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an
accelerometer, which gives the components of acceleration of the
body with respect to the x,y,z coordinate axes.

Introduction to Internet of 12
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Sensor Types
• Light Dependent resistor
Light • Photo‐diode
• Thermocouple
Temperature • Thermistor
• Strain gauge
Force • Pressure switch
• Potentiometer, Encoders
Position • Opto‐coupler
• Reflective/ Opto‐coupler
Speed • Doppler effect sensor
• Carbon Microphone
Sound • Piezoelectric Crystal
• Liquid Chemical sensor
Chemical • Gaseous chemical sensor

Introduction to Internet of 13
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 Pressure Sensor Ultrasonic Distance Sensor Tilt Sensor Infrared Motion Sensor
Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons

Analog Temperature Sensor Camera Sensor

Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons

Introduction to Internet of 14
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 Sensorial Deviations
 Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the
output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum,
when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale
range of a sensor defines the maximum and minimum values
of the measured property.
 The sensitivity of a sensor under real conditions may differ
from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error.
 If the output signal differs from the correct value by a
constant, the sensor has an offset error or bias.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

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 Non-linearity
 Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor's transfer function (TF)
from a straight line transfer function.
 This is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal TF
behavior over the full range of the sensor, which is denoted as
the percentage of the full range.
 Most sensors have linear behavior.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

Introduction to Internet of 16
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  If the output signal slowly changes independent of the
measured property, this is defined as drift. Long term drift
over months or years is caused by physical changes in the
sensor.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in
time.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

Introduction to Internet of 17
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 Hysteresis
Error
 A hysteresis error causes the sensor output value to vary
depending on the sensor’s previous input values.
 If a sensor's output is different depending on whether a
specific input value was reached by increasing or decreasing
the input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error.
 The present reading depends on the past input values.
 Typically in analog sensors, magnetic sensors, heating of
metal strips.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

Introduction to Internet of 18
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 Other
 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an
Errors
approximation of the measured property. This error is also called
quantization error.
 If the signal is monitored digitally, the sampling frequency can cause
a dynamic error, or if the input variable or added noise changes
periodically at a frequency proportional to the multiple of the
sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other
than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are
influenced by the temperature of their environment.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

Introduction to Internet of 19
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Introduction to Internet of 20
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 Actuation

Dr. Sudip Misra

Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
IIT KHARAGPUR
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://cse.iitkgp.ac.in/~smisra/

Introduction to Internet of 1
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Actuator
 An actuator is a component of a machine or system that
moves or controls the mechanism or the system.
 An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts
upon an environment
 An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy.

Introduction to Internet of 2
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 Upon receiving a control signal is received, the actuator
responds by converting the energy into mechanical motion.
 The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or
electronic system), software‐based (e.g. a printer driver, robot
control system), a human, or any other input.
Current Pneumatic Manual
Electric

Pressure

Mechanical

Voltage (air) Drive (e.g.

Hydraulic crankshaft) Control Signal Actuator
(fluid)

Introduction to Internet of 3
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Actuator Types
Hydraulic

Pneumatic

Electrical

Thermal/ Magnetic

Mechanical

Introduction to Internet of 4
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 Hydraulic Actuators
 A hydraulic actuator consists of a cylinder or fluid motor that
uses hydraulic power to facilitate mechanical operation.
 The mechanical motion is converted to linear, rotary or
oscillatory motion.
 Since liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic
actuator exerts considerable force.
 The actuator’s limited acceleration restricts its usage.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of 5
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Fig: An oil based hydraulic actuator
Fig: A radial engine acts as a hydraulic actuator
Source: Wikimedia Commons
File: Radial_engine.gif

Introduction to Internet of 6
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 Pneumatic Actuators
 A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or
compressed air at high pressure into either linear or rotary motion.
 Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are used for valve controls of
water pipes.
 Pneumatic energy quickly responds to starting and stopping
signals.
 The power source does not need to be stored in reserve for
operation.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of 7
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 Pneumatic actuators enable large forces to be produced from
relatively small pressure changes (e.g., Pneumatic brakes can
are very responsive to small changes in pressure applied by
the driver).
 It is responsible for converting pressure into force.

Introduction to Internet of 8
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Fig: A manual linear pneumatic actuator Fig: An air pump acts as a pneumatic actuator

Introduction to Internet of 9
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 Electric Actuators
 An electric actuator is generally powered by a motor that
converts electrical energy into mechanical torque.
 The electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as
solenoid valves which control the flow of water in pipes in
response to electrical signals.
 Considered as one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy
actuator types available.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of 10
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Fig: A motor drive‐based rotary Fig: A solenoid based electric bell ringing
actuator mechanism
Source: Wikimedia Commons
File: Electric_Bell_animation.gif

Introduction to Internet of 11
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 Thermal or Magnetic Actuators
 These can be actuated by applying thermal or magnetic energy.
 They tend to be compact, lightweight, economical and with high
power density.
 These actuators use shape memory materials (SMMs), such as
shape memory alloys (SMAs) or magnetic shape‐memory alloys
(MSMAs).
 Some popular manufacturers of these devices are Finnish
Modti Inc.
and American Dynalloy.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of 12
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 Fig: A piezo motor using SMA
Source: Wikimedia Commons
File: Piezomotor type bimorph.gif

Introduction to Internet of 13
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 Fig: A coil gun works on the principle of magnetic actuation

Source: Wikimedia Commons

File: Coilgun animation.gif

Introduction to Internet of 14
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 Mechanical Actuators
 A mechanical actuator converts rotary motion into linear
motion to execute some movement.
 It involves gears, rails, pulleys, chains and other devices to
operate.
 Example: rack and pinion.

Fig: A rack and pinion mechanism

Source: Wikimedia Commons
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator File: Rack and pinion.png

Introduction to Internet of 15
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 Fig: A crank shaft acting as a mechanical actuator
Source: Wikimedia Commons
File: Cshaft.gif

Introduction to Internet of 16
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 Soft Actuators
 Soft actuators (e.g. polymer based) are designed to handle
fragile objects like fruit harvesting in agriculture or
manipulating the internal organs in biomedicine.
 They typically address challenging tasks in robotics.
 Soft actuators produce flexible motion due to the integration
of microscopic changes at the molecular level into a
macroscopic deformation of the actuator materials.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of 17
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 Shape Memory Polymers
 Shape memory polymer (SMP) actuators function similar to
our muscles, even providing a response to a range of stimuli
such as light, electrical, magnetic, heat, pH, and moisture
changes.
 SMP exhibits surprising features such a low density, high
strain recovery, biocompatibility, and biodegradability.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of 18
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 Light Activated Polymers
 Photopolymer/light activated polymers (LAP) are a special
type of SMP that are activated by light stimuli.
 The LAP actuators have instant response.
 They can be controlled remotely without any physical contact,
only using the variation of light frequency or intensity.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of 19
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Introduction to Internet of 20
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Basics of IoT Networking – Part
I
Dr. Sudip Misra
Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
IIT KHARAGPUR
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://cse.iitkgp.ac.in/~smisra/

Introduction to Internet of 1
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 Convergence of Domains

Source: O. Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems”, River
Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of 2
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IoT Components

Device (The Thing)

Local Network

Internet

Backend Services

Applications

Introduction to Internet of 3
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Introduction to Internet of 4
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 Functional Components of IoT
 Component for interaction and communication with other IoT
devices
 Component for processing and analysis of operations
 Component for Internet interaction
 Components for handling Web services of applications
 Component to integrate application services
 User interface to access IoT

Source: O Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and
Integrated Ecosystems”, River Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of 5
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 An Example IoT Implementation Analytics

Proxy Server

Radio Actuation
Gateway

Processor

Sensor
Websocket Cloud‐server
Internet
Sensor Mote

Introduction to Internet of 6
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IoT Interdependencies

Introduction to Internet of 7
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 IoT Service Oriented Architecture

Source: Li Da Xu, Wu He, and Shancang Li, “Internet of Things in Industries: A Survey “, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Vol. 10, No. 4, Nov. 2014.

Introduction to Internet of 8
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IoT Categories
 Industrial IoT
 IoT device connects to an IP network and the global Internet.
 Communication between the nodes done using regular as well as
industry specific technologies.
 Consumer IoT
 IoT device communicates within the locally networked devices.
 Local communication is done mainly via Bluetooth, Zigbee or
WiFi.
 Generally limited to local communication by a Gateway

Introduction to Internet of 9
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IoT Gateways

Introduction to Internet of 10
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IoT and Associated Technologies
Big Data
SDN Cloud

3G/4G/5G

IoT Smart Grid

CPS IoV

Tele‐
M2M
medicine

Introduction to Internet of 11
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Technical Deviations from Regular Web

Introduction to Internet of 12
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 Key Technologies for
IoT

Source: O Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated
Ecosystems”, River Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of 13
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IoT Challenges

 Security  Interfacing
 Scalability  Interoperability
 Energy efficiency  Data storage
 Bandwidth management  Data Analytics
 Modeling and Analysis  Complexity management
(e.g., SDN)

Introduction to Internet of 14
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Considerations
 Communication between the IoT device(s) and the outside
world dictates the network architecture.
 Choice of communication technology dictates the IoT device
hardware requirements and costs.
 Due to the presence of numerous applications of IoT enabled
devices, a single networking paradigm not sufficient to
address all the needs of the consumer or the IoT device.

Introduction to Internet of 15
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 Complexity of Networks

 Growth of networks
 Interference among devices
 Network management
 Heterogeneity in networks
 Protocol standardization within networks

Source: O Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and
Integrated Ecosystems”, River Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of 16
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 Wireless Networks
• Traffic and load management
• Variations in wireless networks – Wireless Body Area
Networks and other Personal Area Networks
• Interoperability
• Network management
• Overlay networks

Source: O. Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and
Integrated Ecosystems”, River Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of 17
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Scalability

• Flexibility within Internet

• IoT integration
• Large scale deployment
• Real‐time connectivity of billions of devices

Introduction to Internet of 18
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Introduction to Internet of 19
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