Chapter 5

Confidentiality Using Symmetric

Encryption

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Confidentiality using Symmetric Encryption
Objective: Use of symmetric encryption to provide
confidentiality
traditionally symmetric encryption is used to provide message
confidentiality

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 Cont…

• consider a user workstation in a typical

business organization
• Have many locations where attacks can occur
in a typical scenario such as when have:
– workstations on LANs access other workstations &
servers on LAN
– LANs interconnected using switches/routers
– with external lines or radio/satellite links

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 Cont…
• Consider attacks and placement in this
scenario:
• snooping from another workstation
• use dial-in to LAN or server to snoop
• physically tap line in wiring closet
• use external router link to enter & snoop
• monitor and/or modify traffic one
external links

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 Placement of Encryption function
• have two major placement alternatives
• link encryption
– encryption occurs independently on every link
– implies must decrypt traffic between links
– requires many devices, but paired keys
• end-to-end encryption
– encryption occurs between original source and
final destination
– need devices at each end with shared keys

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Placement of Encryption

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 Location of Encryption Devices
• Link Encryption
– A lot of encryption devices
– High level of security
– Decrypt each packet at every switch
• End-to-End Encryption
– The source encrypts and the receiver decrypts
– Payload encrypted
– Header in the clear
• High Security
– Both link and end-to-end encryption are needed

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 Placement of Encryption
• can place encryption function at various layers
in OSI Reference Model
– link encryption occurs at layers 1 or 2
– end-to-end can occur at layers 3, 4, 6, 7
– as move higher less information is encrypted but
it is more secure though more complex with more
entities and keys

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 Traffic Analysis
• Traffic Analysis, which concerns knowledge
about the number and length of messages
between nodes which may enable an opponent
to determine who is talking to whom
• useful both in military & commercial spheres
• can also be used to create a covert channel
• link encryption obscures header details
– but overall traffic volumes in networks and at end-
points is still visible
• traffic padding can further obscure flows
– but at cost of continuous traffic
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 Key Distribution
• symmetric schemes require both parties to
share a common secret key
• issue is how to securely distribute this key
• often secure system failure due to a break in
the key distribution scheme

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 Key Distribution
• given parties A and B have various key
distribution alternatives:
1. A can select key and physically deliver to B
2. third party can select & deliver key to A & B
3. if A & B have communicated previously can use
previous key to encrypt a new key
4. if A & B have secure communications with a
third party C, C can relay key between A & B

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 Key Hierarchy
• typically have a hierarchy of keys
• session key
– temporary key
– used for encryption of data between users
– for one logical session then discarded
• master key
– used to encrypt session keys
– shared by user & key distribution center

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Key Distribution Scenario

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 Cont…
Assume user A wishes to establish logical
connection with B and requires one time
session key
Ka:Master key of A, known to itself and
KDC only
Kb: Master key of B , known to itself and
KDC only

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 Cont…
• A issues request to KDC with details IDA(identity of
A),IDB and unique number N1( can be time stamp or
random number)
• KDC responds with a message encrypted with K a. Which
consists of session key Ks
• A stores the session key and forwards it to B
• Using the newly minted session key for encryption, B
sends a nonce, N2, to A
• Also using Ks, A responds with f(N2), where f is a function
that performs some transformation on N2

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 Key Distribution Issues
• hierarchies of KDC’s required for large
networks, but must trust each other
• session key lifetimes should be limited for
greater security
• use of automatic key distribution on behalf of
users, but must trust system
• use of decentralized key distribution
• controlling key usage
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 Random Numbers
• many uses of random numbers in cryptography
– nonces in authentication protocols to prevent replay
– session keys
– public key generation
– keystream for a one-time pad
• in all cases its critical that these values be
– statistically random, uniform distribution, independent
– unpredictability of future values from previous values

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 Generation of Pseudo-Random
Numbers
• “Pseudo”, because generating numbers using a known method
removes the potential for true randomness.
• Goal: To produce a sequence of numbers in [0,1] that simulates, or
imitates, the ideal properties of random numbers (RN).
• Important considerations in RN routines:
– Fast
– Portable to different computers
– Have sufficiently long cycle
– Replicable
– Closely approximate the ideal statistical properties of uniformity and
independence.

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 Linear Congruential Method
[Techniques]
• To produce a sequence of integers, X1, X2, … between 0 and m-1
by following a recursive relationship:
X i 1 (aX i  c) mod m, i 0,1,2,...

The The The

multiplier increment modulus

• The selection of the values for a, c, m, and X0 drastically affects

the statistical properties and the cycle length.
• The random integers are being generated [0,m-1], and to convert
the integers to random numbers:
Xi
Ri  , i 1,2,...
m

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Example [LCM]

• Use X0 = 27, a = 17, c = 43, and m = 100.

• The Xi and Ri values are:
X1 = (17*27+43) mod 100 = 502 mod 100 = 2, R1 =
0.02;
X2 = (17*2+43) mod 100 = 77, R2 =
0.77;
X3 = (17*77+43) mod 100 = 52, R3 =
0.52;
…

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