• ELECTRIC CURRENT II AND

CIRCUIT THEORY

Balogun R.O
 Outline
• Cells in series and parallel,
• Kirchhoff’s laws,
• temperature coefficient of resistance,
• principle of potentiometer
• Wheatstone bridge,
• Galvanometer.
 Cells in Series and Parallel
• When two or more cells are in series, with the
positive terminal of one connected to the
negative terminal of another, then the total e.m.f.
is given as,
– E = E1 + E2 + E3 +…

• and the total internal resistance is

– r = r1 + r2 + r3 +…
Cells in Series and Parallel
• If one of the cell, say e.m.f. E3, is connected in
opposition with the others, then
• E = E1 + E2 - E3 +…
– but the total internal resistance remains
unaltered.
• When similar cells are in parallel, then total
e.m.f. = E, the e.m.f. of any one of them. The
internal resistance r is given by
1 1 1 1
    ...
r r1 r2 r3
A current of 3.0 A flows through the wire shown in Fig above.
What will a voltmeter read when connected from (a) A to B, (b) A
to C, (c) A to D?
Kirchhoff theory terminologies

E = 1.5V + 1.5V = 3.0V

E = 20V - 12V = 8.0V

E = 12V
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
• A junction is a point where
three or more conductors
meet.
• A loop is any closed
conducting path.
• Loops start and end at the
same point.
 Kirchhoff’s Rules I
• A junction is a point where
three or more conductors
meet.
• Kirchhoff’s junction rule:

The algebraic sum of the

currents into any junction
is zero: I = 0.
Kirchoff’s Rules I
• Kirchhoff’s junction rule: The algebraic sum of the currents into
any junction is zero: I = 0.

• Conservation of Charge in time (steady state currents)

 Kirchhoff’s Rules II
• A loop is any closed
conducting path.

• Kirchhoff’s loop rule:

The algebraic sum of the

potential differences in
any loop must equal zero:
V = 0.
Sign convention for the loop rule

Lose potential as you

move in direction of current
across resistor

Gain potential as you

move in direction of EMF
Kirchhoff’s Rules Conventions
You should note the following sign conventions when
using the second rule:
I. When the resistor is traversed in the direction of the
current, the potential difference across the resistor is
–IR.
II. When the resistor is traversed in the direction
opposite the current, the potential difference across
the resistor is +IR.
III. If a source of e.m.f. (assumed to have zero internal
resistance) is traversed in the direction of the e.m.f.
(i.e. from negative terminal to positive terminal), the
change in potential, ΔV is +E.
IV. If the trace, on the other hand, is through the source
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal,
the potential difference encountered is -E.
 Reducing the number of unknown currents

• How to use the junction rule to reduce the number of unknown

currents.
A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!
A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Start at “a”: -4I

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I +12V

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I +12V -2I

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I +12V -2I – 3I = 0

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I +12V -2I – 3I = 0

8V = 16I so I = 0.5 Amps

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Vab? Potential of a relative to b? Start at b, move to a:

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Vab? Potential of a relative to b? Start at b, move to a:

Vab = +12
A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Vab? Potential of a relative to b? Start at b, move to a:

Vab = +12 – 2W(0.5 A)

A single-loop circuit
• Ex. 1: Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in each
battery!

Vab? Potential of a relative to b? Start at b, move to a:

Vab = +12 – 2W(0.5 A) - 3W(0.5 A) = 9.5 V

Charging a battery – Example 2
• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
Charging a battery – Example 2
• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
• Connect to battery w/ unknown EMF and 1W internal resistance
Charging a battery – Example 2
• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
• Connect to battery w/ unknown EMF and 1W internal resistance
• Connect to indicator light of 3W carrying current of 2A
Charging a battery – Example 2
• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
• Connect to battery w/ unknown EMF and 1W internal resistance
• Connect to indicator light of 3W carrying current of 2A
• Generate 1A through run-down battery.
Charging a battery – Example 2
• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
• Connect to battery w/ unknown EMF and 1W internal resistance
• Connect to indicator light of 3W carrying current of 2A
• Generate 1A through run-down battery.
• What are r, EMF, and I through power supply?
Charging a battery – Example 2
• Junction rule at “a”:
• 2A + 1A = I or +2 + 1 – I = 0
• I = 3 Amps
• Loop rule starting at “a” around (1)
• +12 V – 3A(r) – 2A(3W) = 0 => r=2W
Charging a battery – Example 2
• Junction rule at “a”:
• 2A + 1A = I or +2 + 1 – I = 0
• I = 3 Amps
• Loop rule starting at “a” around (2)
• -E + 1A(1W) – 2A(3W) = 0 => EMF (E ) = -5V
• Negative value for EMF => Battery should be “flipped”
Charging a battery – Example 2
• Junction rule at “a”:
• 2A + 1A = I or +2 + 1 – I = 0
• I = 3 Amps
• Loop rule starting at “a” around (3)
• +12 V – 3A(2W) – 1A(1) +E = 0 => E = -5V (again!)
• Check your values with third loop!!
 Find I1 , I2 , I3 , and the
potential difference
between point-b to point-e
in Fig.

The currents are steady in the

circuit of Fig. Find I1 , I2 , I3 , I4 ,
I5 , and the charge on the
capacitor.
Find I1 , I2 , I3 , and the
potential difference between
point-b to point-e in Fig.

In Fig., the voltmeter

reads 14 V (with point-a
at the higher potential)
and the ammeter reads 4.5
A. Find ɛ and R
 Resistance and Temperature
The resistivity of a metal varies linearly with temperature
according to the expression
  o 1   T  To 
where ρ is the resistivity at a temperature T (in degrees
Celsius), ρo is the resistivity at some reference
temperature To and α is the temperature coefficient of
resistivity.
Because resistance is proportional to resistivity, we can
also have

R  Ro 1   T  To 
 Temperature Dependence of
Resistance
• For metals: as temperature increases
the resistance increases. At very low
temperatures resistance can become
zero: superconductivity.

• For semiconductors: the opposite

occurs.
Potentiometer

Potentiometer – measure p.d.

and e.m.f. without drawing
voltage

Vl
V=kl
1. Measuring p.d.
- as an ideal voltmeter
- X and Y are connected to +ve and –ve terminals of a
voltmeter
Potentiometer

2. Measuring e.m.f.
- X and Y are connected across the cell
- e.m.f. of the cell (E)
= p.d. across the length l
Comparing resistances

Compare resistances of two resistors by comparing p.d.

across them (connected in series)

V1 IR1 k1
V2 IR2 k2
V1 IR1 k1
 
V2 IR2 k2
R1 1

R2 2
Measuring the e.m.f. of a cell

potentiometer – be calibrated before

use
E0 k0
E k
E   
 , E   E0
E0 0  0 
E V  Ir
V E  Ir

V = E (e.m.f. of the cell)

Measuring the e.m.f. of a cell

Notes:
When using a voltmeter to measure the e.m.f. of a cell, a
current flows from the cell through the voltmeter to produce a
deflection. Hence, the p.d. across the terminals of the cell as
measured by the voltmeter is:

V = E – Ir < E (I  0)

This means that the voltmeter reading is less than the actual
e.m.f. of the cell.
Measuring the internal resistance
of a cell

E k0 , V k
E r
1 
V R
0 r
1 
 R
 Wheatstone bridge
Wheatstone bridge circuit and slide-wire (metre) bridge
can be used to determine resistance.

RX is the unknown resistance,

R1 and R2 are known resistance,
R3 is variable resistance.
R3 is adjusted until the
galvanometer G between P1 and
P2 shows no deflection.
At this balance, the points P1 and P2 must be at the
same potential, since no current is flowing through G.
Therefore R1 and R3 are in parallel; R2 and RX are also
in parallel.
Wheatstone bridge
V1 = V3 and V2 = VX,

V1 V3

V2 V X
V1 I 1 R1 R1
 
V2 I 1 R2 R2
V3 I 2 R3 R3
 
VX I 2 RX RX
R1 R
 3
R2 R X
R2
R X  R3
R1
Slide-wire or metre bridge
It is another form of Wheatstone bridge.

The unknown
resistance S and a
known resistance R
are connected as
shown.

The slider is placed at different points on AC until there

is a null deflection on the galvanometer. At this balance,
S 100  l1

R l1
D’Arsonval galvanometer
• A d’Arsonval galvanometer measures the current through it.
• Many electrical instruments, such as ammeters and voltmeters,
use a galvanometer in their design.
 Ohmmeters and potentiometers
• An ohmmeter is designed to measure resistance.

• A potentiometer measures the emf of a source without drawing

any current from the source.
Class Work

14V

e + - f
Calculate the potential
difference between points b
and c
4Ω
I2

+ I11
-
b c
6Ω
10V
I3 3

a d
2Ω