Transducers

Transducer
Device when activated from one form energy
converted to another quantity
or
Device which converts one physical quantity or
condition to another
Physical quantity – heat , intensity of light, flow
rate, liquid level, humidity etc

Sensor : sense physical quantity

 Introduction
• Basically transducer is defined as a device, which
converts energy or information from one form to
another.
• These are widely used in measurement work
because not all quantities that need to be
measured can be displayed as easily as others.
• A better measurement of a quantity can usually be
made if it may be converted to another form,
which is more conveniently or accurately
displayed.
 Introduction(cont’d)
• Thus the transducer is a device, which
provides a usable output in response to
specific input measured, which may be
physical or mechanical quantity, property or
condition. The transducer may be mechanical,
electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical,
acoustic, thermal nuclear, or a combination of
any two or more of these.
 Mechanical transducers
• are simple and rugged in construction
• cheaper in cost
• accurate and operate without external power supplies but
are not advantageous for many of the modern scientific
experiments and process control instrumentation owing to
their poor frequency response
• requirement of large forces to overcome mechanical friction
• in compatibility when remote control or indication is
required, and a lot of other limitations.
• All these drawbacks have been overcome with the
introduction of electrical transducers.
 Diaphragm
Common pressure sensing elastic element
Thin circular plate stretched & fastened at its
periphery
Made of elastic alloys of bronze,phosphor
bronze, stainless steel or alloys like Monel,
Nickel span -C
Structure – flat or corrugated
Top view of flat type
Top view of corrugated type
• Flat type – high natural frequency
• Corrugated – for large deflections
Capsule
 Capsule
• Two corrugated metal diaphragms sealed
together at periphery
• Forms a shell like structure
• One diaphragm has a port at centre to admit
pressure to be measured
• Other diaphragm linked to a moveable
mechanical part.
 Capsule
• Displacement proportional to difference b/w
outer & inner pressure.
 Bourdon tubes

• curved or twisted metallic tubes with elliptical

cross section
• Sealed at one end
• Tends to straighten when pressure applied.
• Angular sensitivity proportional to pressure
applied
Spirial bourdon tubes
Bourdon tubes –C type
 Helical type
• Tube in the form of helix
 Bourdon tube
• More sensitive to shock & vibrations
• Good repeatability
Bellows
 Bellows
• Thin walled cylindrical sheets with deep
convolutions sealed at one end
• Sealed end moves axially when pressure is
applied
• No. of convolution s – vary from- 2 to 50 –
depends on range, operating temp
• Used for low pressure measurement
 Bellows
displacement y = 2.n. A q P Rx 2 /( Et 2 .)
where
n – no. of convolutions
A q- effective area
Et - young’s modulus of elasticity
Rx – radius of diaphragm
P – pressure
ie, Y  P
 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
• Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such
as temperature, pressure, displacement, humidity, fluid
flow, speed etc., but these quantities cannot be measured
directly. Hence such quantities are required to be sensed
and changed into some other form for easy measurement.
• Electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance.
inductance and capacitance etc. can be conveniently
measured, transferred and stored, and therefore, for
measurement of non-electrical quantities these are to be
converted into electrical quantities first and then
measured.
 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS(cont’d)

• The function of converting non-electrical quantity into

electrical one is accomplished by a device called the
electrical transducer.
• Basically an electrical transducer is a sensing device by
which a physical, mechanical or optical quantity to be
measured is transformed directly, with a suitable
mechanism, into an electrical signal (current, voltage or
frequency).
• The production of these signals is based upon electrical
effects which may be resistive, inductive, capacitive etc
in nature.
 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSDUCER

• The main function of a transducer is to

respond only for the measurement under
specified limits for which it is designed.
• It is, therefore, necessary to know the
relationship between the input and output
quantities and it should be fixed.
• Transducers should meet the following basic
requirements.
Basic Requirements Of a Transducer (cont’d)

Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding

overload and some safety arrangement should be
provided for overload protection.
Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be linear
and it should produce these characteristics in
symmetrical way.
Repeatability. It should reproduce same output signal
when the same input signal is applied again and again
under fixed environmental conditions e.g. temperature,
pressure, humidity etc.
 Basic Requirements Of a Transducer
(cont’d)
• High Output Signal Quality. The quality of output
signal should be good i.e. the ratio of the signal to
the noise should be high and the amplitude of the
output signal should be enough.
• High Reliability and Stability. It should give minimum
error in measurement for temperature variations,
vibrations and other various changes in surroundings.
• Good Dynamic Response. Its output should be
faithful to input when taken as a function of time.
The effect is analyzed as the frequency response.
 Basic Requirements Of a Transducer
(cont’d)
• No Hysteretic. It should not give any hysteretic
during measurement while input signal is
varied from its low value to high value and
vice-versa.
• Residual Deformation. There should be no
deformation on removal of local after long
period of application.
 Classification of transducers
1. Based on principle of transduction
2. Active & passive
3. Analog & digital
4. Transducer and Inverse transducer
5. Primary and Secondary
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
•In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted to
a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
d
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled. Area=A
• The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges.
• The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = ε0 εr A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) Either A, d or ε can be varied.
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is
converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in
the magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux
Current induced in a coil.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER:

•In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It is
achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is
attached to a mechanical sensing element
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PIEZO ELECTRIC INDUCTION :

•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted

into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when mechanically it is stressed
as shown in fig.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCTION :

•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is

converted to voltage generated when the junction
between dissimilar material is illuminated as shown in
fig.
Physics of Photovoltaic
Generation

n-type
semiconducto
+ + + + + + + + + + r
-+ - +- +- +
- +
- - - - - - - - Depletion
- - - - - Zone
p-type
semiconducto
r
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTO CONDUCTIVE TRANSDUCTION :

•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

converted to change in resistance of semiconductor
material by the change in light incident on the material.
2-Active and Passive Transducers.
• . Transducers, on the basis of methods of
energy conversion used, may be classified into
active and passive transducers.
 Active Transducer
Active or Self generating type – do not require
an external power, and produce an analog
voltage or current when stimulated by some
physical form of energy
◦Thermocouple
◦Photovoltaic cell
◦Tacho generators
◦Piezoelectric crystals
Piezoelectric Transducer
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 Passive Transducers
Passive transducers – require an external power,
and the output is a measure of some variation
(resistance or capacitance)
◦Slide-wire resistor
◦Resistance strain gauge
◦Differential transformer
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
 Analog Transducers
-These transducers convert the input quantity
into an analog output which is a continuous
function of time.
◦Strain Gauge
◦LVDT
◦Thermocouple
◦Thermistor
 Digital Transducers
-These transducers convert the input quantity
into an electrical output which is in the form
of pulses.
◦Glass Scale can be read optically by means of a light
source, an optical system and photocells.
 Transducers and Inverse Transducers-

-A Transducer can be broadly defined as a

device which converts a non-electrical
quantity into an electrical quantity.
Ex:-Resistive,inductive and capacitive transducers
-An inverse transducer is defined as a device
which converts an electrical quantity into a
non-electrical quantity.
Ex:-Piezoelectric crystals
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical
device. The mechanical device converts the physical quantity
to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical
device are called as the primary transducers, because they deal
with the physical quantity to be measured.
•The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into
a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device are
known as secondary transducers.
•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary
transducer. It convert pressure (the quantity to be
measured) into displacement(the mechanical signal).
•The displacement is then converted into change in
resistance using strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as
the secondary transducer.
 Selection Of Transducers
• In a measurement system the transducer (or a
combination of transducers) is the input
element with the critical function of
transforming some physical quantity to a
proportional electrical signal. So selection of
an appropriate transducer is most important
for having accurate results.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)

• The first step in the selection procedure is to clearly

define the nature of quantity under measurement
(measurand) and know the range of magnitudes
and frequencies that the measurand is expected to
exhibit.
• Next step will be to examine the available
transducer principles for measurement of desired
quantity. The type of transducer selected must be
compatible with the type and range of the quantity
to be measured and the output device.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
• In case one or more transducer principles are
capable of generating a satisfactory signal,
decision is to be taken whether to employ a
commercially available transducer or build a
suitable transducer. If the transducers are
available in the market at a suitable price, the
choice will probably be to purchase one of
them, otherwise own transducer will have to
be designed, built and calibrated.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
The points to be considered in determining a transducer
suitable for a specific measurement are as follows:
Range. The range of the transducer should be large enough to
encompass all the expected magnitudes of the measurand.
Sensitivity. The transducer should give a sufficient output
signal per unit of measured input in order to yield meaningful
data.
Electrical Output Characteristics. The electrical characteristics-
the output im­pedance, the frequency response, and the
response time of the transducer output signal should be
compatible with the recording device and the rest of the
measuring system equipment.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
• Physical Environment. The transducer
selected should be able to withstand the
environmental conditions to which it is likely
to be subjected while carrying out
measurements and tests.
• Such parameters are temperature,
acceleration, shock and vibration, moisture,
and corrosive chemicals might damage some
transducers but not others.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
• Errors. The errors inherent in the operation of
the transducer itself, or those errors caused by
environmental conditions of the measurement,
should be small enough or controllable enough
that they allow meaningful data to be taken.
• However the total measurement error in a
transducer-activated system may be reduced
to fall within the required accuracy range by
adopting the following techniques.
 Errors(cont’d)
Calibrating the transducer output against some known standards
while in use under actual test conditions. This calibration should
be performed regularly as the measurement proceeds.
Continuous monitoring of variations in the environmental
conditions of the transducer and correcting the data accordingly.
Controlling the measurement environment artificially in order to
reduce possible transducer errors. Artificial environmental control
includes the enclosing of the transducer in a temperature-
controlled housing and isolating the device from external shocks
and vibrations.
 Passive Electrical Transducers
• Resistive Transducers
• Inductive Transducers
• Capacitive Transducers
 Resistive transducers
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the
resistance change due to the change in some physical
phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a
simple equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.

1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer
 POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding
contact is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of
the two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive
element in helix form and are called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.
 Variable Resistors -- Potentiometers
• Potentiometer – a three-terminal resistor whose
value can be adjusted (within set limits) by the
user
• Rac = Rab + Rbc

EGR 101 64
Construction

EGR 101 65
Setting the Value of Resistance

EGR 101 66
 Potentiometer Taper

Linear – resistance varies at a constant rate

Nonlinear – resistance changes at an

increasing rate

EGR 101 67
Trimmer Potentiometers
low-power applications

EGR 101 68
 Multiturn Potentiometers
Much better resolution

Smaller percentage of change per

degree of rotation

EGR 101 69
Types
 Advantages
• Simple in construction and operation
• High electrical efficiency and provide sufficient
output for further control operations
• Useful for displacement measurements of
large amplitudes
• inexpensive
 Disadvantages
• In linear potentiometer, large force is required
to move the wiper
• Suffer from mechanical wear and
misallignment of wiper
• Limited resolution and high electronic noise in
output
• Insensitive in variation of wiper between two
consecutive turns of wire
 STRAIN GAUGE
• The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into a
resistance change.
• This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length
and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external
force acts on it.
 Strain gauge

From the equation of resistance,

R= ρL/A

R = resistance
ρ = specific resistance of the conductor material
L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square meters
When a strain produced by a force is applied on
the wires, L increase and A decrease.
 Strain gauge – the gauge factor

K= (ΔR/R)/ (ΔL/L)
• K = the gauge factor
• R = the initial resistance in ohms (without
strain)
• ΔR = the change of initial resistance in ohms
• L = the initial length in meters (without strain)
• ΔL = the change of initial length in meters
Strain gauge – the gauge factor
 Stress equation
• For many common materials, there is a
constant ratio between stress and strain.
Stress is defined as the internal force per unit
area.
• S=F/A
• S = the stress in kilograms per square meter
• F = the force in kilograms
• A = the area in square meters
 Young’s modulus

• The constant of proportionality between

stress and strain for the curve is known as the
modulus of elasticity of the materials
E=S/G
• E = Young’s modulus in kilograms per square
meter
• S = the stress in kilograms per square meter
• G = the strain (no unit)
Measuring Circuit
Measuring Circuit
 Strain Gage: Gage Factor
• Remember: for a strained thin wire
D L
– DR/R = DL/L – DA/A + Dr/r
• A = p (D/2)2, for circular wire

• Poisson’s ratio, m: relates change in diameter D to change in length

L
– DD/D = - m DL/L
• Thus
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect
– DR/R = (1+2m) DL/L + Dr/r

• Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

– G = DR/R = (1+2m) + Dr/r

DL/L DL/L
ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason
Tension
Strain Gauge Compression

l
R  => Rl l
A

l
R  Resistance R
  Property of material
R l  Length of wire
A  Effective cross sectional area of wire
Wheatstone Bridge

 R4 R2 
Vout   Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 
 Wheatstone Bridge
say,
Vin 5.00volts
(3) (3)

 R4 R2 
Vout   Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 
 3 3 
Vout    5.0
 33 33
(3) (3) Vout 0
 Wheatstone Bridge
say,
Vin 5.00volts
(4) (2)

 R4 R2 
Vout 
  Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 
 4 2 
Vout    5.0
 24 42
 4 2
(2) (4) Vout    5.0
 6 6
Vout 1.667volts
Full Bridge Strain Gauge

R
R

R R
Tension

Compression

No Force Applied

R
R

R
R
 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE

• The type of strain gauge are as

1. Wire gauge
• Unbonded
• Bonded
• Foil type
2. Semiconductor gauge
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
• Resistance of metal increase with increases in
temperature. Therefore metals are said to have a
positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction
of platinum résistance thermometer. The platinum
wire is wound in the form of spirals on an insulating
material such as mica or ceramic.
• This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
• This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid
whose temperature is to be measured.
• The resistance of the platinum wire changes with the
change in temperature of the gas or liquid
• This type of sensor have a positive temperature
coefficient of resistivity as they are made from metals
they are also known as resistance temperature
detector
• Resistance thermometer are generally of probe type
for immersion in medium whose temperature is to be
measured or controlled.
 THERMISTOR
•Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
•Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors. They are
made of semiconductor material which have negative
temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. their resistance
decreases with increase of temperature.
•Thermistor are widely used in application which involve
measurement in the range of 0-60º Thermistor are composed
of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as magnese,
nickle, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium
•The thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and
discs.
•The thermistor provide a large change in resistance for
small change in temperature. In some cases the
resistance of themistor at room temperature may
decreases as much as 6% for each 1ºC rise in
temperature.