UNIT I

AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
 Introduction
Elements of Communication System:
Communication: It is the process of conveying or
transferring information from one point to
another.
(Or)
It is the process of establishing connection or link
between two points for information exchange.
 Elements of Communication
Information source:
System:
The message or information to be communicated
originates in information source.
Message can be words, group of words, code, data,
symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter :
The objective of the transmitter block is to collect the
incoming message signal and modify it in a suitable
fashion (if needed), such that, it can be transmitted
via the chosen channel to the receiving point.
 Elements of Communication
System:
Channel :
Channel is the physical medium which connects the
transmitter with that of the receiver.
The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial
cable, fibre optic cable, wave guide and free space
or atmosphere.
Receiver:
The receiver block receives the incoming modified
version of the message signal from the channel and
processes it to recreate the original (non-
electrical) form of the message signal.
 Limitations of Communication
System
• Technological Problems:
To implement communication systems, Tx, Rx, channel
are required which requires hardware.
Communication system is expensive and complex.
• Bandwidth & Noise:
The effect of noise can be reduced by providing
more bandwidth to stations but due to
this less number of stations can only be
accommodated.
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):Noise should be low to
increase channel capacity but it is an unavoidable
aspect of communication system.
 Modulation
It is the process of varying the characteristics of
high frequency carrier in accordance with
instantaneous values of modulating or message
or baseband signal.
(Or)
It is a frequency translation technique which
converts baseband or low frequency signal to
bandpass or high frequency signal.

Modulation is used in the transmitter.

Types of Modulation
 Types of
Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

• Frequency Modulation: Frequency of the carrier

is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

• Phase Modulation: Phase of the carrier is varied

in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.
 Benefits or Need of Modulation
• To reduce the length or height of antenna

• For multiplexing

• For narrow banding or to use antenna with single

or same length

• To reduce noise effect

• To avoid equipment limitation or to reduce the

size of the equipment.
 Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal.
 Amplitude Modulation

The carrier signal is given by,

C(t) = Ac Coswct
Where, Ac= Maximum amplitude of the carrier
signal.
W= 2πfc= Frequency of the carrier signal.
Modulating or baseband signal is given by,
X(t) = Am Coswmt
Where, Am = Amplitude of the baseband signal.
The
Amplitude Modulation
standard equation for amplitude
modulated signal is expressed as,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)] Where, ma = Am/Ac =
Modulation Index
Time Domain representation of AM:
S(t)=AcCos2πfct+μAc/2Cos[2πfc+2πfm]t+μAc/2Cos[2πfc-2πfm]t
I term: Carrier signal with amplitude Ac and frequency fc.
II. term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc+fm , Upper sideband
frequency
III. term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc-fm , Lower
sideband frequency
 Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Domain representation of AM:
The time domain representation of AM
wave is given by,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)] Taking Fourier
transform on both sides,
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] + Acma/2[M(f-fc)+ M(f+fc)]
 Modulation Index
Modulation index or depth of modulation is
given by,
ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]= Am/Ac

Percentage of modulation index is,

%ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]X100= [Am/Ac ]X100
Types of AM with respect to modulation index:
• Under Modulation (ma <1)
• Critical Modulation (ma =1)
• Over Modulation (ma >1)
Types of AM
 Generation of AM
Wave
Square Law modulator:
This circuit consists of,
•A non-linear device
•Band pass filter
•Carrier source and modulating signal
 Generation of AM
Wave
The modulating signal and carrier are connected in
series with each other and their sum V1(t) is
applied at the input of non-linear device such as
diode or transistor.
V1(t) = x(t) + Ac cosWct --- (1)
The input-output relation of non-linear device is,
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t) --- (2)
Using (1) in (2),
V2(t) = a x(t) + a Ac Cos (2πfct)+bx2(t) + 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)+b Ac2 Cos2
(2πfct)---(3)
Out of these 5 terms, 1,3,5 terms are unuseful terms
are eliminated by BPF.
 Generation of AM
Wave
Output of BPF is given by,
V0(t) = a Ac Cos (2πfct)+ 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)---
(4)

Switching Modulator:
 Generation of AM
The
Wave
carrier signal c(t) is connected in series
with modulating signal x(t).
Sum of these two signals is passed through a diode.
Output of the diode is passed
through a band pass filter and the result
is an AM wave.
V1(t) = x(t) + c(t) ---(1)
Amplitude of c(t) is much greater than x(t), so ON &
OFF of diode is determined by c(t)
When c(t) is positive, V2(t) = V1(t) ---(2) When c(t) is
negative, V2(t) = 0 ---(3), Finally, V2(t) =
Detection of AM Wave
Demodulation or detection is the process of
recovering the original message signal from the
received modulated signal.

Types of AM
Detectors:
1.Square Law detector
2.Envelope detector
3.Rectifier detector
 Detection of AM
Wave
Square Law detector:

The amplitude modulated wave is given as input to the

square law device.
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t)---(1)
When this is passed through square law device, V2(t) =
aAcCoswct + aAcmx(t)Coswct+ bAc 2Cos2wct+
2bAc2mx(t)Cos2wct+ bAc2m2x2(t)Cos2wct---(2)
 Detection of AM
Wave
In order to extract the original message signal, V2(t)
is passed through a low pass filter .
The output of LPF is,
V0(t) = mbAc2x(t) ---(3)
Envelope Detector:
 Detection of AM
Wave
• The standard AM wave is applied at the input of
detector .
• Inevery positive half cycle of input,
diode is forward biased which charges
capacitor ‘C’.
• When capacitor charges to peak value
ofinput voltage, diode stops conducting.
• The capacitor discharges through ‘R’
between positive peaks.
• This process continuous and capacitor
charges and discharges repeatedly.
 Detection of AM
Wave

Rectifier
detector:
 Detection of AM
• In rectifier detector,Wave
diode acts as rectifier which
allows only positive half of the modulated signal
to the filter.

• The low pass filter removes all the high frequency

components giving envelope at its output.

• This envelope will have some dc value which can

be removed by passing through capacitor ‘C’.

• The output of rectifier detector is

the envelope with zero dc value.
 Double Sideband-Suppressed
Carrier(DSB-SC)
The equation of AM wave in simple form is given
by,
S(t) = Ac Cos wct +
Here, carrier component remains constant and
does not convey any information.
Therefore, if the carrier is suppressed, only
sidebands remain in the spectrum requiring less
power.
• DSB-SC Contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB
• Power efficiency is 100%
• % Power saving in DSB-SC w.r.t AM is 66.67%.
 DSB-SC Modulation
A DSB-SC signal is obtained by multiplying
the modulating signal x(t) with carrier signal c(t).
So, we need a product modulator
for the generation of DSB-SC wave.
 DSB-SC Modulation
1. Balanced Modulator:
It consists of two amplitude modulators arranged
in balanced configuration to suppress the carrier
completely.
 DSB-SC Modulation
Operation:
•Carrier c(t) is applied to both the modulators.
•Message signal x(t) is applied directly to
modulator 1 and with a phase shift of 1800 to
modulator 2.
Output of modulator 1 is,
S1(t) = Ac[1+ mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(1) Output of
modulator 2 is,
S2(t) = Ac[1- mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(2)
These two outputs are applied to
subtractor, whose output is, 2mAcx(t) cos 2πfct---
(3)
 DSB-SC Modulation
Ring Modulator:
2.

It operates in two modes

•Mode1: Without modulating signal x(t)
•Mode 2: With modulating signal x(t)
Mode1: c(t) is positive
•Diodes D1, D2 forward biased, D3,D4 Reverse biased
•Output of ring modulator will be zero.
C(t) is negative
•Diodes D1, D2 reverse biased, D3,D4 forward biased
•Output of ring modulator will be zero.
Mode2:
•When modulating signal is present, during positive half cycle D1, D2
will be ON and secondary of T1 is directly applied to primary of
T2.
•Output will be positive
•During negative half cycle of modulating signal D3, D4 will be ON
producing positive voltage.
DSB-SC Modulation
 Time Domain representation of DSB-
SC
Message signal is given by,
x(t) =Am cos(2πfmt) ---(1) Carrier signal is given
by,
C(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) ---(2) DSB-SC modulated signal
is given by,
S(t) = x(t) c(t) ---(3)
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]--
(4)
 Frequency Domain representation
of DSB-SC
The frequency spectrum of DSB-SC is obtained
by taking Fourier transform of s(t)
S(f) = F{[1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]}

S(f) =
This is the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
Coherent Detection:
The modulating signal x(t) is recovered from DSB-
SC wave s(t) by multiplying it with a locally
generated carrier and then passing through a
LPF.
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
V(t) = s(t) c(t) ---(1)
Where,
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]—
(2) C(t) = cos2πfct ---(3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in (1)

When this is passed through a LPF, V0(t) =

 Single Sideband-Suppressed
The modulationCarrier(SSB-SC)
process in which only one side band
is transmitted and with carrier suppression is
called Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-
SC).
Modulating Signal m(t) = Am Cos (2πfmt) and Carrier
Signal c(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct)
SSB-SC signal can be generated by passing DSB-SC
signal through BPF. And DSB-SC signal is
generated by multiplying m(t) & c(t).
Cos2π( )t (or)
ASSB-SC(t) =
+ )t
 Generation of SSB-SC
1. Filter or Frequency Discrimination
Method:

Filter method of generating DSB-SC Signal requires

product modulator and BPF as shown in figure.
Here Product Modulator generates DSB-SC Signal
which contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB.
By passing DSB-SC Signal through BPF either of
sidebands are removed for generating SSB-SC
Signal.
 Generation of SSB-SC
2.Phase Shift or Phase Discrimination Method:

This system uses two Product modulators

M1 and M2 and two 90o phase shifting networks.
 Vestigial Sideband
Transmission
• VSB-SC is used to transmit Video Signal which is
large BW signal containing very low and very high
frequency components.
• Very low Frequencies raise sidebands near to carrier
frequency.
• It is not possible to suppress one complete sideband.
• Very low frequencies contain most of useful
information, any effect to complete suppress the
one sideband would result phase distortion at these
frequencies.
• Therefore compromise has been made to
suppress the part of sideband. Hence VSB-SC Signal
contain one full sideband & part of other side band.
 VSB Modulation & Demodulation
Modulation:
Modulating signal x(t) and carrier
signal c(t) are applied as inputs to the
product modulator.
S(t) = x(t)c(t)
This is the DSB-SC wave. It is applied to a side band
filter which passes the wanted sideband
completely and vestige of unwanted sideband.
 VSB Modulation & Demodulation
Demodulation:
The demodulation of VSB signal can be achieved
using a coherent detector by multiplying s(t) with a
locally generated carrier.
V(t) = s(t)AcCos2πfct
This signal is then passed through a LPF which
passes low frequency message signal and rejects
carrier.
 AM Radio Transmitters
• Transmitter must generate a signal with the right type of
modulation, with sufficient power, at the right carrier
frequency, and with reasonable efficiency.
• Earlier, we have studied the basic concepts of amplitude
modulation. Now, we are going to study the two basic
topologies to generate and transmit amplitude
modulated waves. They are
1. Low level modulation
In low level modulation, the generation of AM wave takes place
in the initial stage of amplification, i.e at a low power level.
The generated AM signal then amplified using number of
amplifier stages.

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 AM Low-Level Transmitter

Figure: AM transmitter Block diagram with Low-Level Transmitter

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 Radio Transmitters Contd.,
2. High level modulation
In high level modulation, modulation takes place in the final
stage of amplification and therefore modulation circuitry has to
handle high power.

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 AM High-Level Transmitter

Figure: AM transmitter Block diagram with High-Level Transmitter

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 AM Transmitters Contd.,
• It can be seen that stable RF source, buffer
amplifier and subsequent RF power
amplifiers are common for both low level
modulation transmitter and high level
modulation transmitter.
• The stable RF source is provided by crystal
oscillator with a carrier frequency or
submultiple of it.
• The buffer amplifiers are usually class-A
amplifier where as
6/1/2020 power amplifiers are
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 AM Transmitters Contd.,
• In low level modulation system amplifier efficiency and
bandwidth preservations are important factors since
audio signal is having low power.
• For high level modulation other than efficiency of amplifier
power handling capability, distortion, capability of handling
amplitude variations are important parameter.
• The output of final amplifier is passed through an impedance
matching network that includes the tank circuit of the final
amplifier. For tank circuits, Q is kept low enough to pass all
sideband signals without amplitude and frequency
distortion.

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 AM Radio Receivers
• AM radio receiver is a device which receives
the desired AM signal, amplifies it followed by
demodulation to get back the original
modulating signal.
• Radio receivers are broadly of TWO types
1.Depending on the application: AM, FM,
COMM.,TV, RADAR
2.Depending on the fundamental aspect/
principle
•6/1/2020
Based on principleProf.Ch.Srinivasa
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 Characteristics of Radio Receivers
The characteristics of a Radio Receiver are as
follows:

•Sensitivity
•Selectivity
•Fidelity
•Adjacent Channel Selectivity (Double Spotting)
•Image Frequency
•Image Frequency Rejection Ratio

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 Characteristics of Radio Receivers Contd.,
Sensitivity:
The minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input of
the receiver and produce a usable demodulated information signal
with a minimum acceptable signal-to-noise ratio
Typical sensitivity for commercial broadcast-band AM
receiver is 50 μV.
Received input level, μV

16 Lowest

10 Highest Input signal frequency,

535 1605 fs kHz

Figure: Sensitivity curve of AM

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Receiver UCEV
 Characteristics of Radio Receivers Contd.,
Selectivity:
Used to measure the ability of the receiver to accept a given band
of frequencies and reject all other unwanted signal
frequencies.
Attenuation, dB

100

80 Attenuation increases away

from tuned frequency
60

40

20 RX tuned at 950 kHz

0
kHz
-40 -20 0 20 40

Deviation from resonant frequency

Figure: Selectivity curve of AM

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 Characteristics of Radio Receivers Contd.,
Fidelity:
The receiver’s ability to reproduce all the
modulating frequencies of the original information.
RX Output, dB

Minimum attenuation

fm
50 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz

Figure: Fidelity curve of AM Receiver

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 Characteristics of Radio Receivers Contd.,
Adjacent Channel Selectivity (Double Spotting):
•This is well known phenomenon, which manifests itself by the
picking up of the same short wave station at two near by
points on the receiver dial. It is caused by poor front-end
selectivity.
•The front-end of the receiver does not select different adjacent
signals very well, but the IF stage eliminating almost all
of them.
•Double spotting may be used to calculate the intermediate
frequency of an unknown receiver, since the spurious
point on the dial is precisely 2fi below the correct
frequency.

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 Characteristics of Radio Receivers Contd.,

Image Frequency:
The image frequency is defined as signal
the received
frequency plus twice the intermediate frequency.

Image Frequency Rejection Ratio:

The image-frequency rejection ratio of an image frequency signal
by a single tuned circuit may be defined as the ratio of the gain
at the signal frequency to the gain at the image frequency

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 Image Frequency and its Rejection Ratio:

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 Prof.Ch.Srinivasa Rao, JNTUK -
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 Soln. In most receivers the local oscillator frequency is higher

𝒇𝟎(𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓) = 𝒇𝒔 + 𝒇𝒊

than incoming signal i.e.

Where 𝒇𝒔------- signal frequency

𝒇𝒊 𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒔𝒊 -------- Image frequency

𝒇𝒔𝒊 = 𝒇𝒔 + 𝟐𝑰𝑭 = 𝒇𝒔 + 𝟐𝒇𝒊

𝒇𝒔𝒊 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐(𝟒𝟓𝟓)
𝒇𝒔𝒊 = 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝑲𝑯𝒛
so, answer is 2110 KHz

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 The image channel selectivity of superheterodyne receiver depends upon
(a)IF amplifiers only
(b)RF and IF amplifiers only
(c)Pre selector, RF and IF amplifiers
(d)Pre selector and RF amplifiers
[GATE 1998: 1 Marks]

Image rejection depends on front end selectivity of receiver

and must be achieved before If stage. So image channel
selectivity depends upon pre selector & RF amplifier. If it
enters IF stage it becomes impossible to remove it from wanted
signal.
Option (d)

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 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
• The TRF receiver is a simple “logical” receiver.
• Two or three RF amplifiers, all tuning together, were
employed to select and amplify the incoming
frequency and simultaneously to reject all others.
• After the signal was amplified to a suitable level, it was
demodulated (detected) and fed to the loud speaker after
being passed through the appropriate audio amplifying
stages.
• These are simple to design, align at broadcast frequencies, but
they presented difficulties at higher frequencies.
Drawbacks:
• It is difficult to achieve sufficient
selectivity at high
frequencies.
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• The bandwidth variation over the tuning range
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 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

Figure: Block diagram of TRF

receiver

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 Super Heterodyne AM
Receiver
Heterodyne means mixing two frequencies and
generating single or constant frequency and the
output of mixer will be fixed frequency.
Specification of AM Receiver:
• The frequency range of AM-MW( Medium wave)
: (540-1640) KHz
• Band width of receiver:1640 KHz – 540 KHz = 1100 KHz
• Band width of each AM station : 10 KHz
• No. of stations available: 110
• Intermediate frequency (fIF): 455 KHz
Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
 Super Heterodyne AM
Receiver
Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal into
electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
•It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
•Tuning circuit designed to select 110 stationsand
amplifier provides
amplification for 1100 KHz band width.
•RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal
rejection and noise reduction.
Mixer:
•It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter (BPF).
•Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming signal and
locally generated signal.
•BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center frequency is
equal to= 455 KHz.
Local Oscillator:
•It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
•It generates carrier frequency 455 KHz greater than the incoming carrier
frequency to produce constant or fixed frequency.
 Super Heterodyne AM
IF Amplifier: Receiver
•It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which provides
amplification for 10 KHz band width at center frequency of 455 KHz.
•It is cascadeCE amplifier which provides
90% of total receiver amplification.

Detector or Demodulator:
•It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating signal from AM
signal.
•Usually Envelope detector is used.
•Fidelity of the receiver is mainly depends on detector or demodulator.

Audio Amplifier:
•It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.
•It contain cascade CE Voltage amplifier followed by Power amplifier.

Loud Speaker:
•It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.