2 Measurement techniques

2.1 Measurements
Methods of measuring length

meter-rule

micrometer screw gauge

vernier calipers
measurement of length

meter-rule

avoid parallax error

vernier calipers
 Micrometer screw gauge

accuracy: 0.01 mm

One revolution: 0.5 mm

 Micrometer screw gauge

The first significant figure(7) is taken from the last graduation

showing on the sleeve directly to the left of the revolving thimble.

Note that an additional half scale division (0.5 mm) must be included
if the mark below the main scale is visible between the thimble and
the main scale division on the sleeve.

7 + 0.5 = 7.5
mm
 Micrometer screw gauge

The remaining two significant figures (0.22 mm) are taken directly
from the thimble opposite the main scale.

7.5 + 0.22 = 7.72 mm

 Micrometer screw gauge

the main scale reading is 3 mm

the reading on the drum is 0.46 mm
the reading is 3.46 mm.
Micrometer screw gauge

the main scale reading is 3 mm

the reading on the drum is 0.09 mm
the reading is 3.09 mm.
 Vernier calipers

accuracy : 0.1 mm accuracy : 0.02 mm

Vernier calipers
 Vernier calipers

The first and second significant figure(37) are read

immediately to the left of the zero of the vernier scale

the third and fourth digits(46) are taken as the vernier scale
division that lines up with any main scale division.

37 + 0.46 = 37.46 mm
 Try the following for yourself.

30.88 mm
8.10 mm
 Choice of method

Instrument range Reading Notes

uncertainty
Metre rule 1m 0.5 mm Check zero,
calibration errors
Micorometer screw 50 mm 0.01 mm Check zero error
gauge
Vernier caliper 100 mm 0.1 mm Versatile: inside
and outside
diameters, depth
 Application : measurement of pressure difference –U-tube

p  patm h  g
 Measurement of Volume

As volume measured in the laboratory are small , units such as

dm3,cm3 and mm3 are used.

1 dm3 = 1 litre(l)
1 cm3 = 1 ml

to measure the volume of a liquid a

measuring cylinder can be used.
readings should be taken from the
lowest point of a concave meniscus.
 Methods of measuring mass

 electronic balance 电子天平

 balance/scale 天平
 analytical balance 分析天平
 top-pan platform balance 台秤
 spring balance 弹簧秤
 lever balance 杠杆天平
spring balance digital balance lever balance
 electronic balance top-pan platform balance
 Note:
 Adjustment
 Keep the pan clean and dry
 Use a container to measure
 Eg
 The mass of a quantity of chemical is determined using a
lever balance. Over the range of masses involved, the
separation between mass graduations on the bar is 2g.
The mass of the empty container is 56g, and the mass of
the container plus the chemical is 104g. Find the mass of
the chemical, and the uncertainty in the value.
 Measurement of Angles

protractor: correct alignment

 Measurement of Time

simple pendulum stopwatch

 Application of timer

 Measurement of frequency using a cathode-ray oscilloscope( 阴极

示波器 ).
The CRO is connected in exactly the same way as a voltmeter
(in parallel with a component)
The input resistance is very high indeed
A trace of 1-4 complete cycles

Time-base setting ： L

T Lx
1
f 
T
 Eg
 The output of a signal generator is connected to the Y-input of a
c.r.o. When the time-base control is set at 0.5 milliseconds per
centimeter, the trace is obtained. What is the frequency of the
signal?
8.5T = 60 ms = 0.06 s
T = 0.06/8.5 s
f = 1/T = 8.5/0.06 = 141.67 Hz
 Measurement of Electric Current
Ammeter:
connected in series with other components.
avoid errors in reading the scale of the ammeter.
 Measurement of Potential difference
Voltmeter:
connected in parallel to the resistor.
avoid errors in reading the scale of the voltmeter.
 Galvanometer:
 Digital multimeter
A digital multimeter is a versatile electronic instrument that can
be used as an ampere , a voltmeter or an ohmmeter.
V = 1200 mv = 1.2 v
I = 0.48 A

P = VI = 1.2 × 0.48 = 0.576 w

Application: measurement of voltage using a c.

A trace of 1-4 complete cycles

Y-amplifier setting ： Q

peak value :Vo  AQ

peak  to  peak value : 2V0

The CRO can be used as a DC voltmeter. We get a horizontal line or a dot,
depending whether the time base is on.
If it is used as an AC voltmeter, it will show the sinusoidal waveform.

Direct current Alternating current

(DC) (AC)
We measure the voltage on the vertical axis. We can adjust the
sensitivity by turning the knob marked y-gain or voltage gain.
The horizontal direction is determined by the time base setting.
We can change this by using the time base knob.
Often engineers read the peak to peak voltage off the CRO as the
determination of the 0 level is not always easy.
The peak voltage is half of the peak to peak voltage.
Question2
Look at the CRO display:

The time base is set at 2 ms/cm and the y gain at 0.5 V/cm
(a)What is the peak to peak voltage?
(a) The total height of the wave from peak to trough is 6.4 cm
So Vpk to pk = 3.2 V
(b) What is the peak voltage?
(b) Vpk = 3.2/2 = 1.6 V
(c) What is the period?
(c) Time period = 2.9  2 = 5.8 ms = 5.8  10-3 s
(d) What is the frequency?
(d) F = 1/T = 1/5.8  10-3 = 178 Hz
 Measurement of Temperature

Mercury in glass thermometer Digital thermometer

 final temperature: 14.0°C

initial temperature: - 6.5°C

temperature change = final temperature – initial temperature

= 20.5°C
 Measuring magnetic flux density

Hall probes
Hall probes （霍尔探头）
 2.2 Errors and uncertainties

 Accuracy is the degree to which a measurement approaches the

‘true value’.
 The experiment used, the skill of the experimenter and the
techniques used.
 Precision is that part of accuracy which is within the control of the
experimenter.
 Metre rule: 1.2 ±0.1 cm
 Vernier caliper: 1.21 ±0.01 cm
 Micrometre screw gauge: 1.212 ±0.001 cm.
 Uncertainty:
 The total range of values within which the measurement is likely
to lie is known as its uncertainty.
 46.0 ±0.5
Uncertainty in a measurement

26 ±1 mm
 precision and accuracy

accurate not accurate

precise precise
accurate not accurate
not precise not precise
 Eg
 A student takes a large number of imprecise readings for
the current in a wire. He uses an ammeter with a zero
error of  I , meaning that all scale readings are too
small by I . The true value of the current is I. sketch a
distribution curve of the number of readings plotted
against the measured value of the current.
 Systematic Error and Random Error

accurate precise
已校准的 精确的
 Systematic Error and Systematic Error

systematic error:

random error:
 Zero error on an instrument.
 Wrongly calibrated scale.
 Reaction time of experimenter.
 Reading a scale
 Timing oscillations without the use of a reference marker
 Taking readings of a quantity that varies with time
 Reading a scale from different angles
zero error
 Combining uncertainties

 Two rules:
 1 For quantities which are added or subtracted to give a final
result, add the actual uncertainties.
 2. For quantities which are multiplied together or divided to give a
final result, add the fractional uncertainties.
If S = A + B :
△S = △A + △B

If D = A – B
△D = △A + △B

If M = A × B
△M / M = △A / A + △B / B

If D = A / B
△D / D = △A / A + △B / B
 Eg
 I1 and I2 are two currents coming into a junction in a circuit. The
current I going out of the junction is given by I=I1+I2. In an
experiment, the values of I1 and I2 are determined as
 2.0 0.1A and 1.5 0.2 A respectively. What is the value of
I? what is the uncertainty in this value?
 Eg
 In an experiment, a liquid is heated electrically, causing the
temperature to change from 20.0 0.2 C to 21.5 0.5  C .
Find the change of temperature, with its associated uncertainty.
 x=Ayz
 The uncertainty in the measurement of y is and in z is z .y
 The fractional uncertainty in x is given by

x y z
 
x y z
 a b
x  Ay z
x  y   z 
a   b 
x  y   z 
 Eg
 A value of the acceleration of free fall g was determined
by measuring the period of oscillation T of a simple
pendulum of length l. The relation between g, T and l is
 l 
g 4  2 
2

T 
 In the experiment, l was measured as 0.55 0.02m and T
was measured as 1.5 0.02s . Find the value of g, and
the uncertainty in this value.
 For x=Ayazba
x  Ay z b
xlow  A  y  y   z  z 
a b

xhigh  A  y  y   z  z 
a b

 The uncertainty in the value of x is given by

x high  xlow  / 2
 Eg
 A value of the acceleration of free fall g was determined
by measuring the period of oscillation T of a simple
pendulum of length l. The relation between g, T and l is
 l 
g 4  2 
2

T 
 In the experiment, l was measured as 0.55 0.02m and T
was measured as 1.5 0.02s . Find the extreme values of
g, and the uncertainty in this value.