Network Layer

Chapter 4
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 Introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
 datagram format  RIP
 IPv4 addressing  OSPF
 ICMP  BGP
 IPv6

Network Layer 4-2

Network layer
application
 transport segment from transport
network

sending to receiving host data link

physical
network network
 on sending side encapsulates network
data link
data link
physical
data link
physical

segments into datagrams physical network

data link
network
data link

on receiving side, delivers

physical physical

segments to transport layer network
data link
network
data link
physical physical
 network layer protocols in network
data link
physical
every host, router network
application
transport
 router examines header network
data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link

fields in all IP datagrams data link physical physical

physical

passing through it

Network Layer 4-3

Two key network-layer functions
 forwarding: move packets
from router’s input to
appropriate router output
 routing: determine route forwarding
taken by packets from
source to dest.
 routing algorithms

routing

Network Layer 4-4

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table forwarding table determines

header value output link local forwarding at this router
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-5

 Connection setup
 3rd important function in some network architectures:
 ATM, frame relay, X.25
 before datagrams flow, two end hosts and intervening
routers establish virtual connection
 routers get involved
 network vs transport layer connection service:
 network: between two hosts (may also involve intervening
routers in case of VCs)
 transport: between two processes

Network Layer 4-6

Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?
example services for example services for a
individual datagrams: flow of datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery  in-order datagram
 guaranteed delivery with delivery
(bounded)delay  guaranteed minimum
bandwidth to flow.
 Guaranteed maximum
jitter
 Security services
specific services that could be provided by the
network layer
Network Layer 4-7
Network layer service models:
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and datagram  link state
networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-9

Connection, connection-less service
 datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
 virtual-circuit network provides network-layer
connection service
 analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-oriented /
connectionless transport-layer services, but:
 service: host-to-host
 no choice: network provides one or the other
 implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-10

Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”
 performance-wise
 network actions along source-to-dest path

 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable
service)
Network Layer 4-11
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
 packet belonging to VC carries VC number
(rather than dest address)
 VC number can be changed on each link.
 new VC number comes from forwarding table

Network Layer 4-12

 VC forwarding table
R1 22
12 32

1 3
2
VC number
interface
forwarding table in number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

VC routers maintain connection state information!

Network Layer 4-13
Virtual circuits
 signaling protocols used to setup, maintain
teardown VC
 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’s Internet
Virtual-circuit setup

application application
5. data flow begins 6. receive data
transport transport
network 4. call connected 3. accept call
1. initiate call network
data link 2. incoming call
data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-14

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host address

application application
transport transport
network 1. send data 2. receive data network
data link data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-15

Datagram forwarding table
4 billion IP addresses, so
routing algorithm rather than list individual
destination address
local forwarding table
list range of addresses
dest address output link (aggregate table entries)
address-range 1 3
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-16

Figure 4.3: A connectionless packet-switched network

4.17
 Figure 4.4: Forwarding process in a router when used in a

connectionless network

SA DA Data SA DA Data

4.18

1.18
Consider the network below.
a. Suppose that this network is a datagram network. Show the forwarding table in router A,
such that all traffic destined to host H3 is forwarded through interface 3.
b. Suppose that this network is a datagram network. Can you write down a forwarding table in
router A, such that all traffic from H1 destined to host H3 is forwarded through interface 3, while
all traffic from H2 destined to host H3 is forwarded through interface 4? (Hint: this is a trick
question.)
c. Now suppose that this network is a virtual circuit network and that there is one ongoing call
between H1 and H3, and another ongoing call between H2 and H3. Write down a forwarding
table in router A, such that all traffic from H1 destined to host H3 is forwarded through interface
3, while all traffic from H2 destined to host H3 is forwarded through interface 4.
d. Assuming the same scenario as (c), write down the forwarding tables in nodes B, C, and D.
Suppose there are three routers between a source host and a destination host.
Ignoring fragmentation, an IP datagram sent from the source host to the
destination host will travel over how many interfaces? How many forwarding tables
will be indexed to move the datagram from the source to the destination?
Datagram forwarding table
Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-21
Longest prefix matching
longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix that
matches destination address.

Destination Address Range Link interface

11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1
11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2
otherwise 3

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 4-22
Consider a datagram network using 8-bit host addresses.
Suppose a router uses longest-prefix matching, and has the following forwarding table:

1. Suppose a datagram arrives at the router,

with destination address 00000110. To which
interface will this datagram be forwarded using
longest-prefix matching?

2. Suppose a datagram arrives at the router,

with destination address 10010000. To which
interface will this datagram be forwarded using
longest-prefix matching?

3. Suppose a datagram arrives at the router,

with destination address 00010111. To which
interface will this datagram be forwarded using
longest-prefix matching?
Consider a datagram network using 8-bit host addresses.
Suppose a router uses longest-prefix matching, and has the following
forwarding table:

1. Suppose a datagram arrives at the router,

with destination address 11011101. To
which interface will this datagram be
forwarded using longest-prefix matching?

2. Suppose a datagram arrives at the router,

with destination address 01011100. To
which interface will this datagram be
forwarded using longest-prefix matching?

3. Suppose a datagram arrives at the router,

with destination address 01001011. To
which interface will this datagram be
forwarded using longest-prefix matching?
Consider a datagram network using 32-bit host addresses. Suppose a router
has four links, numbered 0 through 3, and packets are to be forwarded to the link
interfaces as follows:

Provide a forwarding table that uses longest prefix matching, and forwards packets to the
correct link interfaces.
Describe how your forwarding table determines the appropriate link interface for
datagrams with destination addresses:
11001000 10010001 01010001 01010101
11100001 01000000 11000011 00111100
11100001 10000000 00010001 01110111
Consider a datagram network using 8-bit host addresses. Suppose a router
uses longest prefix matching and has the following forwarding table:

For each of the four interfaces, give the associated range of destination host
addresses and the number of addresses in the range.
Datagram or VC network: why?
Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)
 data exchange among  evolved from telephony
computers  human conversation:
 “elastic” service, no strict  strict timing, reliability
requirements
timing req.  need for guaranteed
 many link types service
 different characteristics  “dumb” end systems
 uniform service difficult  telephones
 complexity inside network
 “smart” end systems
(computers)
 can adapt, perform control,
error recovery
 simple inside network,
complexity at “edge”

Network Layer 4-27

Chapter 4: outline
4.5 routing
4.1 introduction
algorithms
 link state
4.2 virtual circuit and datagram networks
 distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router
 hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
4.6 routing
 datagramin the Internet
format
 RIP
IPv4 addressing
 OSPF
ICMP
 BGP
IPv6
4.7 broadcast and multicast routing

Network Layer 4-28

Router architecture overview
two key router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

forwarding tables computed, routing

pushed to input ports routing, management
processor
control plane (software)

forwarding data
plane (hardware)

high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer 4-29
 Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet  given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory (“match plus action”)
 goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-30
Switching fabrics
 transfer packet from input buffer to appropriate
output buffer
 switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
 often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
 N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
 three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-31

Switching via memory
first generation routers:
 traditional computers with switching under direct control of
CPU
 packet copied to system’s memory
 speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per
datagram)

input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)

system bus

Network Layer 4-32

Switching via a bus
 datagram from input port memory
to output port memory via a
shared bus
 bus contention: switching speed
limited by bus bandwidth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient bus
speed for access and enterprise
routers

Network Layer 4-33

Switching via interconnection network
 overcome bus bandwidth limitations
 banyan networks, crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially
developed to connect processors in
multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells,
crossbar
switch cells through the fabric.
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection network

Network Layer 4-34

Output ports This slide in HUGELY important!

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)

 buffering required when datagrams(packets)

Datagram arrive from
can be
fabric faster than the lost
transmission rate
due to congestion, lack of
 scheduling discipline chooses among queued
buffers
datagrams for transmission
Priority scheduling – who gets best
performance, network neutrality
Network Layer 4-35
Output port queueing

switch
switch
fabric
fabric

at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output

 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds

output line speed
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port
buffer overflow!
Network Layer 4-36
How much buffering?
 RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering equal
to “typical” RTT (say 250 msec) times link capacity
C
 e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
 recent recommendation: with N flows, buffering
equal to
RTT . C
N

Network Layer 4-37

Input port queuing
 fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing may
occur at input queues
 queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
 Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at front
of queue prevents others in queue from moving forward

switch switch
fabric fabric

output port contention: one packet time

only one red datagram can later: green
be transferred. packet
lower red packet is blocked experiences HOL
blocking
Network Layer 4-38
Chapter 4: outline
4.5 routing
4.1 introduction
algorithms
 link state
4.2 virtual circuit and datagram networks
 distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router
 hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
4.6 routing
 datagramin the Internet
format
 RIP
IPv4 addressing
 OSPF
ICMP
 BGP
IPv6
4.7 broadcast and multicast routing

Network Layer 4-39

The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection • addressing conventions
• RIP, OSPF, BGP • datagram format
network • packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
table
ICMP
protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”
link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-40

 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to options (if any) e.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
 20 bytes of TCP (variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of IP typically a TCP to visit.
 = 40 bytes + app or UDP segment)
layer overhead

Network Layer 4-41

 IP fragmentation, reassembly
 network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) -
largest possible link-level fragmentation:

…
frame in: one large datagram
 different link types, out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
 large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within net reassembly
 one datagram
becomes several
datagrams …
 “reassembled” only at
final destination
 IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments Network Layer 4-42
 ***IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte
datagram one large datagram becomes
several smaller datagrams
 MTU = 1500
bytes
1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset
data field =1500 =x =1 =0

offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 =185

length ID fragflag offset

=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-43

An IP packet of size 1600 bytes passes through
network segment before it reaches its
destination. The header size of this packet is 30
bytes. The maximum size of an IP packet in
intermediate network (MTU) is 1400 bytes. How
the IP packet would be fragmented in a router.
Find all the information for each fragments.
Chapter 4: outline
4.5 routing
4.1 introduction
algorithms
 link state
4.2 virtual circuit and datagram networks
 distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router
 hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
4.6 routing
 datagramin the Internet
format
 RIP
IPv4 addressing
 OSPF
ICMP
 BGP
IPv6
4.7 broadcast and multicast routing

Network Layer 4-45

IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
 IP address: 32-bit 223.1.2.1
identifier for host, router
interface 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 interface: connection
between host/router and 223.1.3.27
physical link 223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
 router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
 host typically has one or
two interfaces (e.g., wired 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Ethernet, wireless 802.11)

 IP addresses associated
with each interface 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-46

 IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are interfaces 223.1.2.1
actually connected?
A: we’ll learn about that223.1.1.2 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

in chapter 5, 6.
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
intervening router)
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer 4-47

Subnets
 IP address: 223.1.1.1
 subnet part - high order
bits 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
 host part - low order 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

bits 223.1.2.2
 what’s a subnet ? 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

 device interfaces with subnet

same subnet part of IP
address 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
 can physically reach
each other without
intervening router network consisting of 3 subnets

Network Layer 4-48

Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
recipe 223.1.1.1

 to determine the
223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
subnets, detach each 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

interface from its host 223.1.2.2

or router, creating 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

islands of isolated subnet

networks
 each isolated network 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

is called a subnet
223.1.3.0/24

subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-49
Subnets 223.1.1.2

how many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-50

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

Network Layer 4-51

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

 Windows:
control-panel->network->configuration->tcp/ip-
>properties
 UNIX: /etc/rc.config
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
 “plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-52

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network
server when it joins network
 can renew its lease on address in use
 allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/“on”)
 support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional]
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-53

DHCP client-server scenario

DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2 arriving DHCP

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
client needs
address in this
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2 network
223.1.1.3

223.1.2.0/24

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

223.1.3.0/24

Network Layer 4-54

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover arriving
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
Broadcast: is there a
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
DHCP server
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0out
transaction
there?ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server! Here’s an IP
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction
address youID:can
654 use
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
take that IPID:address!
transaction 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255,
Broadcast: 68
OK. You’ve
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
gottransaction
that IPID:address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs

Network Layer 4-55

DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP address
on subnet:
 address of first-hop router for client
 name and IP address of DNS sever
 network mask (indicating network versus host portion
of address)

Network Layer 4-56

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs
DHCP UDP its IP address, addr of
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth
first-hop router, addr of
Phy DNS server: use DHCP
DHCP request
DHCP


encapsulated in UDP,
DHCP DHCP 168.1.1.1 encapsulated in IP,
DHCP UDP encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
 Ethernet frame
Phy server built into broadcast (dest:
router FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
received at router
 running DHCP
Ethernet server
demuxed to
IP demuxed, UDP
demuxed to DHCP

Network Layer 4-57

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP
 DCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy
router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server
 encapsulation of
DHCP DHCP DHCP server, frame
DHCP UDP forwarded to client,
DHCP IP demuxing up to
Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
DHCP at client
DHCP
Phy server built into  client now knows its
router IP address, name
and IP address of
DSN server, IP
address of its first-
hop router

Network Layer 4-58

 DHCP: Wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
reply
output (home LAN)
Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Message type: Boot Request (1) Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

Network Layer 4-59

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address
space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer 4-60

 Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
erarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routin
formation:

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”

Network Layer 4-61

 Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes

ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23

Network Layer 4-62

IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers http://www.icann.org/
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-63

NAT: network address translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving datagrams with source or

local destination in this network
network have same have 10.0.0/24 address for
single source NAT IP source, destination (as usual)
address:
138.76.29.7,different Network Layer 4-64
 NAT: network address translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far
as outside world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one
IP address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus)

Network Layer 4-65

NAT: network address translation
implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of

every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using
(NAT IP address, new port #) as destination
addr
 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address,
port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair
 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in
dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding
(source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table

Network Layer 4-66

 NAT: network address translation
NAT translation table 1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1, 3345 to …… ……
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

Network Layer 4-67

NAT: network address translation
 16-bit port-number field:
 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
NAT possibility must be taken into
account by app designers, e.g., P2P
applications
 address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6
Network Layer 4-68
NAT traversal problem
 client wants to connect to
server with address 10.0.0.1
 server address 10.0.0.1 local to 10.0.0.1
client
LAN (client can’t use it as
destination addr) ?
 only one externally visible NATed 10.0.0.4
address: 138.76.29.7
 solution1: statically configure 138.76.29.7 NAT
NAT to forward incoming router
connection requests at given
port to server
 e.g., (123.76.29.7, port 2500)
always forwarded to 10.0.0.1 port
25000

Network Layer 4-69

NAT traversal problem
 solution 2: Universal Plug and Play
(UPnP) Internet Gateway Device
(IGD) Protocol. Allows NATed host 10.0.0.1
to: IGD
 learn public IP address
(138.76.29.7)
 add/remove port mappings
(with lease times) NAT
router

i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration

Network Layer 4-70

 NAT traversal problem
 solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
 NATed client establishes connection to relay
 external client connects to relay
 relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection
to 1. connection 10.0.0.1
relay initiated to
by client relay initiated
3. relaying by NATed host
client established
138.76.29.7 NAT
router

Network Layer 4-71

Chapter 4: outline
4.5 routing
4.1 introduction
algorithms
 link state
4.2 virtual circuit and datagram networks
 distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router
 hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
4.6 routing
 datagramin the Internet
format
 RIP
IPv4 addressing
 OSPF
ICMP
 BGP
IPv6
4.7 broadcast and multicast routing

Network Layer 4-72

ICMP: internet control message protocol

 used by hosts & routers to

Type Code description
communicate network-
0 0 echo reply (ping)
level information 3 0 dest. network unreachable
 error reporting: 3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, network, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
 echo request/reply (used 3 6 dest network unknown
by ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
 network-layer “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
 ICMP msgs carried in IP control - not used)
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
 ICMP message: type, code
10 0 router discovery
plus first 8 bytes of IP 11 0 TTL expired
datagram causing error 12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-73

Traceroute and ICMP
 source sends series of UDP  when ICMP messages
segments to dest arrives, source records
 first set has TTL =1 RTTs
 second set has TTL=2, etc.
 unlikely port number stopping criteria:
 when nth set of datagrams  UDP segment
arrives to nth router: eventually arrives at
 router discards datagrams destination host
 and sends source ICMP  destination returns
messages (type 11, code 0) ICMP “port
 ICMP messages includes
name of router & IP address
unreachable”
message (type 3,
code 3)
 source stops
3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
Network Layer 4-74
IP Security
 To communicate securely in the nonsecure public
Internet. E.g. VPN

 The services provided by an IPsec session include:

• Cryptographic agreement.
• Encryption of IP datagram payloads.
• Data integrity.
• Origin authentication.
Consider a router that interconnects three subnets:
Subnet 1, Subnet 2, and Subnet 3. Suppose all of the
interfaces in each of these three subnets are
required to have the prefix 223.1.17/24. Also
suppose that Subnet 1 is required to support at least
60 interfaces, Subnet 2 is to support at least 90
interfaces, and Subnet 3 is to support at least 12
interfaces. Provide three network addresses (of the
form a.b.c.d/x) that satisfy these constraints.
Consider sending a 2400-byte datagram into a link that has
an MTU of 700 bytes. Suppose the original datagram is
stamped with the identification number 422. How many
fragments are generated? What are the values in the various
fields in the IP datagram(s) generated related to
fragmentation?

Suppose datagrams are limited to 1,500 bytes (including

header) between source Host A and destination Host B.
Assuming a 20-byte IP header, how many datagrams would
be required to send an MP3 consisting of 5 million bytes?
Explain how you computed your answer.
Suppose two packets arrive to two different input ports of a router at
exactly the same time. Also suppose there are no other packets
anywhere in the router.
a. Suppose the two packets are to be forwarded to two different output
ports. Is it possible to forward the two packets through the switch fabric
at the same time when the fabric uses a shared bus?
b. Suppose the two packets are to be forwarded to two different output
ports. Is it possible to forward the two packets through the switch fabric
at the same time when the fabric uses a crossbar?
c. Suppose the two packets are to be forwarded to the same output port.
Is it possible to forward the two packets through the switch fabric at the
same time when the fabric uses a crossbar?